CHAIN RULE

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This module will teach you the basics of direct and indirect proportions. These concepts will further help you in time and work questions.

Important Formulas – chain rule

  • Direct Proportion

    Two quantities are said to be directly proportional, if on the increase or decrease of the one, the other increases or decreases the same extent.
    Examples

    1. Cost of the goods is directly proportional to the number of goods. (More goods, More cost)
    2. Amount of work done is directly proportional to the number of persons who did the work. (More persons, More Work)
  • Indirect Proportion (inverse proportion)

    Two quantities are said to be indirectly proportional (inversely proportional) if on the increase of the one, the other decreases to the same extent and vice-versa.

Examples

    1. Number of days needed to complete a work is indirectly proportional (inversely proportional) with the number of persons who does the work (More Persons, Less Days needed)
    2. The time taken to travel a distance is indirectly proportional (inversely proportional) with the speed in which one is travelling (More Speed, Less Time)

 

Solved Examples

Level 1

1. If the cost of x metres of wire is d rupees, then what is the cost of y metres of wire at the same rate?
A. Rs. (xd/y) B. Rs. x/d
C. Rs. (yd/x) D. Rs. y/d

 

Answer : Option C

Explanation :

cost of x metres of wire = Rs. d

cost of 1 metre of wire = Rs.(d/x)

cost of y metre of wire = Rs.(y×d/x)=Rs. (yd/x)

2. In a camp, there is a meal for 120 men or 200 children. If 150 children have taken the meal, how many men will be catered to with remaining meal?
A. 50 B. 30
C. 40 D. 10

 

Answer : Option B

Explanation :

Meal for 200 children = Meal for 120 men

Meal for 1 child = Meal for 120/200 men

Meal for 150 children = Meal for (120×150)/200 men=Meal for 90 men

Total mean available = Meal for 120 men

Renaming meal = Meal for 120 men – Meal for 90 men = Meal for 30 men

 

3. 36 men can complete a piece of work in 18 days. In how many days will 27 men complete the same work?
A. 26 B. 22
C. 12 D. 24

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :
Let the required number of days be x

More men, less days (indirect proportion)

Hence we can write as

Men36:27}::x:18 ⇒36×18=27×x ⇒12×18=9×x

⇒12×2=x

⇒x=24

4. A wheel that has 6 cogs is meshed with a larger wheel of 14 cogs. If the smaller wheel has made 21 revolutions, what will be the number of revolutions made by the larger wheel?
A. 15 B. 12
C. 21 D. 9

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :

Let the number of revolutions made by the larger wheel be x

More cogs, less revolutions (Indirect proportion)

Hence we can write as

Cogs 6:14}: x: 21⇒6×21=14×x ⇒6×3=2×x ⇒3×3=x ⇒x=9

5. 3 pumps, working 8 hours a day, can empty a tank in 2 days. How many hours a day should 4 pumps work in order to empty the tank in 1 day?
A. 10 B. 12
C. 8 D. 15

 

Answer : Option B

Explanation :

Let the required hours needed be x

More pumps, less hours (Indirect proportion)
More Days, less hours (Indirect proportion)

Hence we can write as

Pumps  3:4

::x:8

Days                      2:1

⇒3×2×8=4×1×x

⇒3×2×2=x

⇒x=12

6. 39 persons can repair a road in 12 days, working 5 hours a day. In how many days will 30 persons, working 6 hours a day, complete the work?
A. 9 B. 12
C. 10 D. 13

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :
Let the required number of days be x

More persons, less days (indirect proportion)
More hours, less days (indirect proportion)

Hence we can write as

Persons                39:30

::x:12

Hours    5:6
⇒39×5×12=30×6×x ⇒39×5×2=30×x ⇒39=3×x ⇒x=13

7. A certain industrial loom weaves 0.128 meters of cloth every second. Approximately how many seconds will it take for the loom to weave 25 meters of cloth?
A. 205 B. 200
C. 180 D. 195

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :

Let the required number of seconds be x

More cloth, More time, (direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Cloth         0.128:25} :: 1:x

⇒0.128x=25 ⇒x=25/0.128 ⇒25000/128=3125/16≈195

 

8. 21 goats eat as much as 15 cows. How many goats each as much as 35 cows?
A. 49 B. 32
C. 36 D. 41

 

Answer : Option A

Explanation :

15 cows ≡ 21 goats

1 cow ≡21/15 goats

35 cows ≡ (21×35)/15 goats≡(21×7)/3 goats≡7×7 goats ≡ 49 goats

 

Level 2

 

1. In a dairy farm, 40 cows eat 40 bags of husk in 40 days. In how many days one cow will eat one bag of husk?
A. 1 B. 40
C. 20 D. 26

 

Answer : Option B

Explanation :

Assume that in x days, one cow will eat one bag of husk.

More cows, less days (Indirect proportion)
More bags, more days (direct proportion)
Hence we can write as

Cows    40:1         ::x:40

Bags     1:40

⇒40×1×40=1×40×x ⇒x=40

2. If a quarter kg of potato costs 60 paise, how many paise does 200 gm cost?
A. 65 paise B. 70 paise
C. 52 paise D. 48 paise

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :
Let 200 gm potato costs x paise

Cost of ¼ Kg potato = 60 Paise
=> Cost of 250 gm potato = 60 Paise (∵ 1 Kg = 1000 gm => ¼ Kg = 1000/4 gm = 250 gm)

More quantity, More Paise (direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Quantity  200:250} :: x:60

⇒200×60=250×x ⇒4×60=5×x ⇒4×12=x ⇒x=48

3. A contract is to be completed in 56 days if 104 persons work, each working at 8 hours a day. After 30 days, 2/5 of the work is completed. How many additional persons should be deployed so that the work will be completed in the scheduled time, each person’s now working 9 hours a day.
A. 160 B. 150
C. 24 D. 56

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :

Persons worked = 104
Number of hours each person worked per day = 8
Number of days they worked = 30
Work completed = 2/5

Remaining days = 56 – 30 = 26
Remaining Work to be completed = 1 – 2/5 = 3/5
Let the total number of persons who do the remaining work = x
Number of hours each person needs to be work per day = 9

More days, less persons(indirect proportion) More hours, less persons(indirect proportion)
More work, more persons(direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Days     30:26

Hours    8:9                                   ::x:104

Work     35:25
⇒30×8×3/5×104=26×9×2/5×x

⇒x=(30×8×3/5×104)/(26×9×2/5)=(30×8×3×104)/(26×9×2)

=(30×8×104)/(26×3×2)=(30×8×4)/(3×2)=5×8×4=160

Number of additional persons required = 160 – 104 = 56

 

4. x men working x hours per day can do x units of a work in x days. How much work can be completed by y men working y hours per day in y days?
A. x2/y2 units B. y3/x2 units
C. x3/y2 units D. y2/x2 units

 

Answer : Option B

Explanation :
Let amount of work completed by y men working y hours per in y days = w units

More men, more work(direct proportion)
More hours, more work(direct proportion)
More days, more work(direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Men                      x:y

Hours    x:y          ::x:w

Days                      x:y
⇒x3w=y3x ⇒w=y3x/x3=y3/x2

5. A flagstaff 17.5 m high casts a shadow of length 40.25 m. What will be the height of a building, which casts a shadow of length 28.75 m under similar conditions?
A. 12.5 m B. 10.5 m
C. 14 D. 12

 

Answer : Option A

Explanation :
Let the required height of the building be x meter

More shadow length, More height (direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Shadow length 40.25:28.75}:: 17.5:x

⇒40.25×x=28.75×17.5 ⇒x=(28.75×17.5)/40.25=(2875×175)/40250

= (2875×7)/1610=2875/230=575/46=12.5

 

6. If the price of 357 apples is Rs.1517.25, what will be the approximate price of 49 dozens of such apples?
A. Rs. 2500 B. Rs. 2300
C. Rs. 2200 D. Rs. 1400

 

Answer : Option A

Explanation :

Let the required price be x

More apples, More price (direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Apples 357:(49×12)} :: 1517.25:x

⇒357x = (49×12)×1517.25⇒x = (49×12×1517.25)/357=(7×12×1517.25)/51

= (7×4×1517.25)/17

=7×4×89.25≈2500

7. 9 engines consume 24 metric tonnes of coal, when each is working 8 hours day. How much coal is required for 8 engines, each running 13 hours a day, if 3 engines of former type consume as much as 4 engines of latter type?
A. 20 metric tonnes B. 22 metric tonnes
C. 24 metric tonnes D. 26 metric tonnes

 

Answer : Option D

Explanation :

Let required amount of coal be x metric tonnes

More engines, more amount of coal (direct proportion)

If 3 engines of first type consume 1 unit, then 1 engine will consume 1/3 unit which is its the rate of consumption.
If 4 engines of second type consume 1 unit, then 1 engine will consume 1/4 unit which is its the rate of consumption
More rate of consumption, more amount of coal (direct proportion)

More hours, more amount of coal(direct proportion)

Hence we can write as

Engines                                                                9:8

rate of consumption                       13:14                     ::24:x

hours                                                                    8:13
⇒9×1/3×8×x=8×1/4×13×24 ⇒3×8×x=8×6×13 ⇒3xX=6×13⇒x=2×13=26

8. in a camp, food was was sufficient for 2000 people for 54 days. After 15 days, more people came and the food last only for 20 more days. How many people came?
A. 1900 B. 1800
C. 1940 D. 2000

 

Answer : Option A

Explanation :

Given that food was sufficient for 2000 people for 54 days
Hence, after 15 days, the remaining food was sufficient for 2000 people for 39 days (∵ 54 – 15 =39)
Let x number of people came after 15 days.
Then, total number of people after 15 days = (2000 + x)
Then, the remaining food was sufficient for (2000 + x) people for 20 days

More men, Less days (Indirect Proportion)⇒Men        2000:(2000+x)}  ::  20:39

⇒2000×39=(2000+x)20⇒100×39=(2000+x)⇒3900=2000+x⇒x=3900−2000=1900

WET LAND ECOSYSTEM

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Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including areas of marine

water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.

Wetlands Classification-

  1. Inland wetland-

a)Natural- Lakes / Ponds, Ox-bow Lakes, Waterlogged, Swamp/marsh

  1. b) Manmade- Reservoirs Tank, Ash pond
  2. Costal Wetland-
  3. A) Natural- Coral reef, Tidal flat, Mangroves, Salt marsh, Estuary, Lagoon, Creek,

Backwater, Bay

b)-manmade -• Salt pans, Aquculture

Functions of Wetlands-

  • Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, birds
  • Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water,
  • Nutrients recycling, Water purification Floods mitigation,
  • Ground water recharging, Buffer shorelines against erosion,
  • Genetic reservoir for various species of plants(rice)
  • the National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water
  • bodies which have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or very little aquatic vegetation.
  • Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have .abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes

India’s Wetland

Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.

Inland wetlands >Costal Wetlands

 

National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)

  • NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
  • Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent conservation and management interventions.

Aim

  • Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradation and ensuring their wise
  • use for the benefit of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.

Objectives

  • to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
  • to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive conservation measures in the identified wetlands
  • The Central Government is responsible for overall coordination of wetland
  • conservation programmes and initiatives at the international and national levels. It also provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to state govt.
  • State Governments/UT Administration are responsible for management of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP for ensuring their wise-use

 

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of National Importance

Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as given below:

  1. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

example of a natural or near-natural wetland type’ found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

  1. Criteria based on species and ecological communities
  • If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or
  • threatened ecological communities.
  • If it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
  • If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

 

  1. Specific criteria based on water birds
  • If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
  • If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.

 

  1. Specific criteria based on fish
  • If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,  species  interactions  and/or  populations  that  are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
  • If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
  1. Specific criteria based on water/life and culture
  • If it is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation  and eco-tourism, improved scenic values, educational opportunities, conservation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites)

 

Drainage System of India

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  • Drainage: Flow of water through well-defined channels. Network of such channels is called a drainage system .
  • Drainage basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries.
  • Watershed: Boundary line separating one drainage basin from other.
  • River basins are larger watersheds.
  • Drainage pattern of an area depends on the geological time period, nature and structure of rocks, topography, rocks, slope, amount of water and periodicity of flow.

Important drainage patterns:

  1. Dendritic: Resembling the branches of a tree. Eg. Northern Plain rivers
  2. Radial: Originate from a hill and flow in all directions. Eg. Rivers in Amarkantak
  3. Trellis: Primary tributaries parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles.
  4. Centripetal: Rivers discharge waters from all directions in a lake or depression

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment area.

Nearly 77 pc of drainage is towards the Bay of Bengal while about 23 pc is towards the Arabian Sea.

The Himalayan Drainage System

Mainly includes the Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra river basins.

Over the plains, rivers of this system change the course often. River Kosi is also known as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’ due to flooding by its frequent change of course by deposition of sediments.

Evolution

Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shivalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire length of the Himalayas some 5-24 million years ago. Over time this got dismembered into the present three major river systems.

The Indus System

Indus river originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in Tibet in the Kailash Mountain range. Known as Singi Khamban (Lion’s mouth) in Tibet. It forms a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in J&K. Enters Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region. Flows only through the Leh distt of J&K.

Smaller tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Nubra, Hunza, Shigar, Gasting, Dras. On right bank: Kabul river, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa and hte Sangar.

Major tributaries: Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum

Jhelum Origin: Verinag at foot of Pir Pinjal.

Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake. Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan
Chenab Origin: Two streams (Chandra and Bhaga) which join at Tandi near Keylong in HP.

Largest tributary of Indus. Aka Chandrabhaga. Flows for 1180 KM before entering Pakistan
Ravi Origin: Kullu hills of HP near Rohtang Pass. Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab near Sarai Sidhu
Beas Origin: Beas Kund near Rohtang pass.

Forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. Meets Satluj near Harike.
Satluj Origin: Rakas lake near Mansarowar in Tibet. Known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet.

Enters India at Ropar. Antecedent river. Bhakra Nangal Project is on this river.

 

The Ganga System

It is the largest river system in India.

Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district. Here it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and is known as Ganga hereafter.

Panchprayag

Vishnu Ganga Joshimath

Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga meet to form Alaknanda
   
   
   
   

 

Alaknanda Origin: Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. Consists of Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga.
Yamuna Origin: Yamnotri glacier on Banderpunch range. Joins Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).

RBT: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken

LBT: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna.

Agra canal
Chambal Origin: Mhow in Malwa plateau.

Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam.

Famour for Chambal ravines.
Gandak Origin: In Nepal between Dhaulgiri and Mt. Everest. Enters Ganga plain in Champaran and joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.

Two streams: Kaliganfak and Trishulganga.

 
Ghaghra Origin: Glaciers of Mapchachungo

Tributaries: Tila, Seti and Beri

Deep gorge at Shishpani

Sarda (Kali) joint it and meet Ganga at Chhapra.
Kosi Origin: North of Mt. Everest in Tibet.

Tributaties: Son Kosi, Tamur Kosi, Arun

Changes course often. Sorrow of Bihar.
   

 

  • Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
  • Left Bank tributaries (LBT): Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda.
  • Right Bank tributaries (RBT): Son
  • Discharges into Bay of Bengal near Sagar island.

 

 

 

 

 

      Energy Resources of India
       
35. Coal Jharkhand Jharia, Bokaro, Giridh, karanpura, Ramgarh, Daltonganj,
      Aurangabad, Hutar, Deogarh, Rajmahal
36.   Orissa Talcher, Rampur
37.   M.P (Former) Central Indian Coalfields -Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, Umaria
      Satupura Coalfields – Pench, Kanhan, Pathkhera
      North Chhattisgarh – Chirmiri-Kaurasia, Bisrampur, Jhillmili,
      Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, lakhanpur-Ramkola
      South Chhattisgarh-Hasdo-Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh
38.   West Bengal Raniganj, Darjeeling

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

39.   Andhra Pr. Singareni, Kothgundam, Tandur
40.   Maharashtra Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander
41. Tetiary Meghalaya Daranggiri, Cherpunji, Laitryngew, Mawlong, Langrin, Pendengru,
  coal   Longoi, Waimong
42.   Assam Makum, Jaipur, Nazira
43.   Arunachal Pr Namchuk-Namphuk
44.   J & K Kalakot, Mohogala, Metka
45.   Rajasthan Palana (lignite) & Khari
46. Petroleum North-East Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki, Hugrijan, Nigru,
      Borholla
47.   Gujarat Ankeleshwar, Kalol, Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana,
      Barkol,Mehsana, Sanand, Lunej, Aliabet island
48.   Mumbai High Bombay high, Bassein
49.   East Coast Narimanam, Kovillapal, Amlapur, Rawa
50.   Other Jaiselmer, Jwalamukhi Area (Punjab)
51. Natural Mumbai Bombay high, Bassein
52. Gas Gujarat Jagatia, Gogha
53.   Assam Nahorkatiya & Moran
54.   Tamil Nadu Neypaltur, Mangamadam, Avadi, Virugambakam
55.   Tripura Baranura, Atharnure
56.   Rajasthan Barmer, Charaswala
57.   Arunachal Pr Non Chick, Mia-Pung, Laptan pung
58.   Himachal Pr Jwalamukhi, Kangra
59.   West Bengal Medinipur
60. Uranium   Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Bhatin, Narwapahar under Uranium
      Corportation in India are the only mines worked at present
61. Thorium   Beach Sands (Kerala), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pr, Orissa

 

Drainage Systems Himalayan and the Peninsular

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Drainage: Flow of water through well-defined channels. Network of such channels is called a drainage system .

Drainage basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries.

Watershed: Boundary line separating one drainage basin from other.

River basins are larger watersheds.

Drainage pattern of an area depends on the geological time period, nature and structure of rocks, topography, rocks, slope, amount of water and periodicity of flow.

Important drainage patterns:

  1. Dendritic: Resembling the branches of a tree. Eg. Northern Plain rivers
  2. Radial: Originate from a hill and flow in all directions. Eg. Rivers in Amarkantak
  3. Trellis: Primary tributaries parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles.
  4. Centripetal: Rivers discharge waters from all directions in a lake or depression

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment area.

Nearly 77 pc of drainage is towards the Bay of Bengal while about 23 pc is towards the Arabian Sea.

The Himalayan Drainage System

Mainly includes the Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra river basins.

Over the plains, rivers of this system change the course often. River Kosi is also known as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’ due to flooding by its frequent change of course by deposition of sediments.

Evolution

Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shivalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire length of the Himalayas some 5-24 million years ago. Over time this got dismembered into the present three major river systems.

The Indus System

Indus river originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in Tibet in the Kailash Mountain range. Known as Singi Khamban (Lion’s mouth) in Tibet. It forms a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in J&K. Enters Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region. Flows only through the Leh distt of J&K.

Smaller tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Nubra, Hunza, Shigar, Gasting, Dras. On right bank: Kabul river, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa and hte Sangar.

Major tributaries: Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum

Jhelum Origin: Verinag at foot of Pir Pinjal.

Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake. Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan
Chenab Origin: Two streams (Chandra and Bhaga) which join at Tandi near Keylong in HP.

Largest tributary of Indus. Aka Chandrabhaga. Flows for 1180 KM before entering Pakistan
Ravi Origin: Kullu hills of HP near Rohtang Pass. Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab near Sarai Sidhu
Beas Origin: Beas Kund near Rohtang pass.

Forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. Meets Satluj near Harike.
Satluj Origin: Rakas lake near Mansarowar in Tibet. Known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet.

Enters India at Ropar. Antecedent river. Bhakra Nangal Project is on this river.

 

The Ganga System

It is the largest river system in India.

Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district. Here it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and is known as Ganga hereafter.

Panchprayag

Vishnu Ganga Joshimath

Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga meet to form Alaknanda
   
   
   
   

 

Alaknanda Origin: Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. Consists of Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga.
Yamuna Origin: Yamnotri glacier on Banderpunch range. Joins Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).

RBT: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken

LBT: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna.

Agra canal
Chambal Origin: Mhow in Malwa plateau.

Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam.

Famour for Chambal ravines.
Gandak Origin: In Nepal between Dhaulgiri and Mt. Everest. Enters Ganga plain in Champaran and joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.

Two streams: Kaliganfak and Trishulganga.

 
Ghaghra Origin: Glaciers of Mapchachungo

Tributaries: Tila, Seti and Beri

Deep gorge at Shishpani

Sarda (Kali) joint it and meet Ganga at Chhapra.
Kosi Origin: North of Mt. Everest in Tibet.

Tributaties: Son Kosi, Tamur Kosi, Arun

Changes course often. Sorrow of Bihar.
   

 

Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.

Left Bank tributaries (LBT): Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda.

Right Bank tributaries (RBT): Son

Discharges into Bay of Bengal near Sagar island.

30.01.18 Nagaland(NPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

  • Territorial integrity of North eastern states won’t be compromised: Rajnath

 

  • Territorial integrity of Assam and other northeastern states will not be compromised when the final Naga peace accord is inked, home minister Rajnath Singh assured Assam chief minister Sarbananda Sonowal.

 

  • The insurgent group NSCN-IM’s key demand is to integrate the Naga-inhabited areas of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Manipur, which has been strongly opposed by the three states, currently ruled by the BJP.

 

  • The NSCN-IM has been engaged with peace talks with the interlocutor of the central government since 1997 when it announced a ceasefire agreement after a bloody insurgency movement which started in Nagaland soon after the country’s Independence. 

     

    INTERNATIONAL

     

    • ‘Aadhaar’ is Oxford’s first Hindi word of the year

     

    • Dictionaries at the Jaipur Literature Festival.

     

    • ‘Aadhaar’ also becomes the first Oxford Dictionaries Hindi Word of the Year.

     

    • The accompanying shortlisted words include Notebandi, Swachh, Vikaas, Yoga and Bahubali.

     

    ·        India Cheapest Country To Live In After South Africa: Survey

     

    • India is ranked second only to South Africa as the cheapest country to live or retire, according to a recent survey of 112 countries by GoBankingRates.
    • The survey ranked nations on the bases of four key affordability metrics. The metrics are Local purchasing power index, rent index, Groceries index, and Consumer price index.
    • India’s local purchasing power is 20.9% lower, rent is 95.2% cheaper, groceries are 74.4% cheaper, local goods and services are 74.9% cheaper.
    • The top three most expensive countries in the survey are Bermuda (ranked 112), Bahamas (111), and Hong Kong (110).

     

     

    NATIONAL

     

    ·        Economic Survey 2018:  Brief Summary

     

    • The Economic Survey, an annual publication of the Finance Ministry, is presented in both houses of Parliament during the Budget Session. It is a review of the developments in the country’s economy over the previous one year.
    • Sticking to the practice started last year, finance minister Arun Jaitley will present Union Budget 2018 on 1 February.
    • It presents a summary of the performance of the government’s major development programmes undertaken during that period.
    • It also details the main policy initiatives of the government.

     

    • The  Survey sees FY19 GDPgrowing 7-7.5% vs 75% in FY18.

     

    • The Due to higher expected increase in imports, net exports of goods and services are slated to decline in 2017-18.

     

    • The Exports biggest source of the boost to growth.

     

    • It points out that the GDP growth has averaged 7.3% for the period from 2014-15 to 2017-18, which is the highest among the major economies of the world.

     

    • Demonetisation helped share of financial saving to rise.

     

    • The ratio of domestic saving to GDP reached 29.2 percent in 2013 to a peak of 38.3 percent in 2007, before falling back to 29 percent in 2016.

     

    • The Sanitation coverage in rural India increased substantially from 39 percent in 2014 to 76 percent in January 2018. With the launch of Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin) on October 2, 2014, the sanitation coverage in rural India increased substantially.

     

    • So far, 296 districts and 307,349 villages all over India have been declared Open Defecation Free (ODF).

     

    • India is gradually improving its performance in Science and Technology. In 2013, India ranked 6th in the world in scientific publications. Its ranking has been increasing consistently. The growth of annual publications between 2009 to 2014 was almost 14%. This increased India’s share in global publications from 3.1% in 2009 to 4.4% in 2014 as per the Scopus Database.

     

    • The foreign exchange reserves grew by 14.1% on a year-on-year basis from the end of Dec 2016 to end of Dec 2017.

     

    • The forex reserves as per 2016-17 were estimated at USD 370 billion. It grew to USD 409.4 billion in 2017-18.

     

     

     

    ·        VINBAX: India and Vietnam hold first military exercise in Jabalpur

     

    • The India-Vietnam Bilateral Army Exercise (VINBAX-2018)was conducted at Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh.
    • It is the first military exercise between the two countries.
    • The six-day-long military exercise (from January 29 to February 3, 2018) was conducted as part of joint training undertaken with friendly foreign countries by Indian Army.
    • VINBAX-2018 was Table Top Exercise to carry out training for Peace Keeping Operations under United Nations (UN) mandate.
    • The Defence ties between India and Vietnam have been on an upswing with the primary focus being cooperation in the maritime domain.

    ·        International Bird Festival To Be Held In Dudhwa National Park

     

    • A three-day international bird festivalwill be held at the Dudhwa National Park, Lakhimpur Kheri, Uttar Pradesh in February 2018 with nearly 200 leading ornithologists expected to attend.
    • The purpose of the international bird festival is to promote eco-tourism in Dudhwa and to give it a distinct international identity besides highlighting its traditional Tharu arts, culture, and heritage.

     

    ·        Asias biggest auto testing track inaugurated in Madhya Pradesh

     

    • Union Minister Babul Supriyo and Madhya Pradesh Industrial minister Rajendra Shukla inaugurated Asia’s biggest auto testing track in Pithampur of Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh.
    • The country’s research and development activities in the sector of automobile engineering and technology will get a boost, due to the construction of the auto testing track in Pithampur.
    • Pithampur will emerge as a hub of the automobile industry in future.
    • Union Minister further mentioned that the state government has provided 4 thousand acre land to NATRiP and the National Auto Testing Track has been developed on 3 thousand acre land.
    • Automobile units can be established by the industrialists on the remaining one thousand acre land.

     

    ·        Sandeep Lamichhane Becomes 1st Nepal Player To Get IPL Contract

     

    • Sandeep Lamichhane became the first cricketer from Nepal to land a deal an IPL contract.
    • He was picked by Delhi Daredevils in the player’s auction.
    • The 17-year-old, the only Nepal player in the IPL auction, was sold at his base price of Rs 20 lakh.
    • The leg-spinner rose to prominence with a successful outing at the 2016 U-19 World Cup where he guided Nepal to a creditable eighth place.
    • He hogged the limelight by becoming the second-highest wicket-taker in the tournament with 14 scalps in six innings.

Scarcity of water, methods of conservation-rain water harvesting and watershed management, ground water management

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Scarcity of water

 

Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to over utilisation and pollution. Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively available for human use. The availability of fresh water varies over space and time.

According to the United Nation Developement Program ,occurrence of water availability at about 1000 cubic meters per capita per annum is a commonly threshold for water indicating scarcity.

Krishna, Cauvery, Subernarekha, Pennar, Mahi, Sabarmati, Tapi, East Flowing Rivers and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni are some of the basins, which fall below the 1000 cubic meter mark- out of which Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati and East Flowing rivers and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni facing more acute water scarcity with per capita availability of water less than or around 500 cu m.

The need of the hour to change the condition of water scarity are as follows:-

  • The need to change cropping patterns based on scientific advice,
  • use of drip and sprinkler irrigation,
  • fertigation for increasing water use efficiency,
  • community participation, especially women, for better water management
  • Use of treated urban waste water to be used for farming in the adjoining areas
  • desilting of rivers
  • recharging of rivers,
  • check dams and other water storage mechanisms.

Rain water harvesting

 

Rain water harvesting generally means collection of rain water. Its special meaning is a technique of recharging of underground water. In this technique water is made to go underground after collecting rain water locally, without polluting the same.

Rain water harvesting is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and wells. Rainwater harvesting increases water availability, checks the declining ground water table, improves the quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.

Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually acceptable for many purposes with little or even no treatment. The physical and chemical properties of rainwater are usually superior to sources of groundwater that may have been subjected to contamination. Rainwater harvesting can co‐exist with and provide a good supplement to other water sources and utility systems, thus relieving pressure on other water sources. Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply buffer for use in times of emergency or breakdown of the public water supply systems, particularly during natural disasters.

Watershed management

 

The term watershed refers to a “contiguous area draining into a single water body or a water course” or “it is a topographical area having a common drainage”. This means that the rainwater falling on an area coming within a ridgeline can be harvested and will flow out of this area thorough single point. Some refer it as a catchment area or river basin.

Watershed management is an efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme  is to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water.  The outcomes are  prevention of soil run-off, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table.  This enables  multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the watershed area.

The main benefits of watershed management are:-

  1. Supply of water for drinking and irrigation.
    2. Increase in bio-diversity.
    3. Loss of acidity in the soil and free for standing water.
    4. Increase in the agricultural production and productivity.
    5. Decrease in the cutting of forests.
    6. Increase in the standard of living.
    7. Increase in employment.
    8. Increase in personal get together by participation of local people.

Ground water management.

 

Scientific management of ground water resources involves a combination of

  1. A) Supply side measures aimed at increasing extraction of ground water depending on its availability and
  2. B) Demand side measures aimed at controlling, protecting and conserving available resources.

The rainfall occurrence in different parts of India is limited to a period ranging from about 10 to 100 days. The natural recharge to ground water reservoir is restricted to this period only and is not enough to keep pace with the excessive continued exploitation. Since large volumes of rainfall flows out into the sea or get evaporated, artificial recharge has been advocated to supplement the natural recharge.

Ground water resources management requires to focus attention on the judicious utilization of the resources for ensuring their long-term sustainability. Ownership of ground water, need-based allocation pricing of resources, involvement of stake holders in various aspects of planning, execution and monitoring of projects and effective implementation of regulatory measures wherever necessary are the important considerations with regard to demand side ground water management.

 

Amendments to the Constitution

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Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a tw

o-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of June 2013 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment Acts.

 

Amendments of constitution                 

 

  1. 1951 To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.
  2. 1953 A technical amendment to fix the size of each parliamentary constituency between 650,000 and 850,000 voters.
  3. 1955 LS limit of 500 members, one member of a constituency represents between 500000 and 750000 people.
  4. 1955 Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  5. 1955 Provides for a consultation mechanism with concerned states in matters relating to the amendments to the territorial matters and in the re-naming of the state.
  6. 1956 Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
  7. 1956 Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
  8. 1960 Clarify state’s power of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property and include Zamindari abolition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  9. 1960 Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
  10. 1961 Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
  11. 1961 Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament.

Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.

  1. 1961 Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
  2. 1963 Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.
  3. 1962 Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
  4. 1963 Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.,
  5. 1963 Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
  6. 1964 To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution
  7. 1966 Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.
  8. 1966 Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
  9. 1966 Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgement invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
  10. 1967 Include Sindhi as an Official Language.
  11. 1969

Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.

 

  1. 1970 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1980.
  2. 1971 Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
  3. 1972 Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property.
  4. 1971 Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
  5. 1972 Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
  6. 1972 Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
  7. 1972 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  8. 1973 Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
  9. 1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
  10. 1974 Protection of regional rights in Telengana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
  11. 1974 Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
  12. 1974 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  13. 1975 Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
  14. 1975 Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
  15. 1975 Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
  16. 1975 Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances
  17. 1975 Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of President, vice-president and Prime Minister.
  18. 1976 Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India

Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.

 

  1. 1976 Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.
  2. 1977 Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a “Socialist Secular” Republic.
  3. 1978 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.
  4. 1979 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
  5. 1980 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.
  6. 1983 Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.
  7. 1984 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  8. 1985 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
  9. 1984 Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
  10. 1984 Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
  11. 1986 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
  12. 1985 Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.
  13. 1987 Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
  14. 1986 Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
  15. 1987 Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
  16. 1987 Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
  17. 1987 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
  18. 1987 Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
  19. 1988 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
  20. 1988 Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
  21. 1989 Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
  22. 1989 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.
  23. 1990 Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
  24. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
  25. 1990 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its stututory powers specifed in The Constitution.
  26. 1990 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  27. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
  28. 1991 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
  29. 1992 To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.
  30. 1991 Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
  31. 1992 Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.
  32. 1992 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
  33. 1993 Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
  34. 1993 Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities. (Municipalities)
  35. 1994 Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
  36. 1994 Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
  37. 1995 A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
  38. 1995 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  39. 2000 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.
  40. 2000 Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
  41. 2000 Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
  42. 2000 Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
  43. 2000 Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
  44. 2002 Extend the usage of 1991 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
  45. 2002 A technical amendment to protect seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
  46. 2002 Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.
  47. 2003 Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
  48. 2004 To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
  49. 2003 The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
  50. 2003 Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
  51. 2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15 % of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
  52. 2004 Enable Levy of Service Tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithili as National Languages.
  53. 2006 Reservation for OBCs in government as well as private educational institutions
  54. 2006 To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States.
  55. 2010 Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SCs and STs from sixty to seventy years.
  56. 2011 Changed “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule to “Odia.
  57. 2012, Jan 12 Right to form unions or co-operative societies. (19(1)C)

Promotion of Co-operative Societies. (43B)

 

The Co-operative Societies. (Part 9B)

 

  1. 2013, Jan 2 To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.

(To insert Article 371J in the Constitution)

 Insolation,heat budget of the earth

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The ultimate source of atmospheric energy is in fact heat and light received through space from the Sun. This energy is known as solar insolation. The Earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total amount of Sun’s radiations. Only two billionths or two units of energy out of 1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by the sun reaches the earth’s surface due to its small size and great distance from the Sun. The unit of measurements of this energy is Langley (Ly). On an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute (2 Langley) at the top of its atmosphere.

Incoming solar radiation through short waves is termed as insolation. The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that is radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and its distance from the sun. Moreover water vapour, dust particles, ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere absorb a small amount of insolation.

The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is not uniform everywhere. It varies from place to place and from time to time. The tropical zone receive the maximum annual insolation. It gradually decreases towards the poles. Insolation is more in summers and less in winters.
The following factors influence the amount of insolation received.
(i) The angle of incidence:-The angle formed by the sun’s ray with the tangent of the earth’s circle at a point is called
angle of incidence. It influences the insolation in two ways. First, when the sun is almost overhead, the rays of the sun are vertical. The angle of incidence is large hence, they are concentrated in a smaller area, giving more amount of insolation at that place. If the sun’s rays are oblique, angle of incidence is small and sun’s rays have to heat up a greater area, resulting in less amount of insolation received there. Secondly, the sun’s rays with small angle, traverse more of the atmosphere, than rays striking at a large angle. Longer the path of sun’s rays, greater is the amount of reflection and absorption of heat by atmosphere. As a result the intensity of insolation at a place is less.
(ii) Duration of the day. (daily sunlight period) :-The duration of day is controlled partly by latitude and partly by the season of the year. The amount of insolation has close relationship with the length of the day. It is because insolation is received only during the day. Other conditions remaining the same, the longer the days the greater is the amount of insolation. In summers, the days being longer the amount of insolation received is also more. As against this in winter the days are shorter the insolation received is also less. On account of the inclination of the earth on its axis at an angle of 23 ½ , rotation and revolution, the duration of the day is not same everywhere on the earth. At the equator there is 12 hours day and night each throughout the year. As one moves towards poles duration of the days keeps on increasing or decreasing. It is why the maximum insolation is received in equatorial areas.

(iii) Transparency of the atmosphere.Transparency of the atmosphere: Transparency of the atmosphere also determines the amount of insolation reaching the earth’s surface. The transparency depends upon cloud cover, its thickness, dust particles and water vapour, as they reflect, absorb or transmit insolation. Thick clouds hinder the insolation to reach the earth while clear sky helps it to reach the surface. Water vapour absorb insolation, resulting in less amount of insolation reaching the surface.

Heat Budget

Energy emitted by the Earth’s climate system tends to maintain a balance with solar energy coming into the system. This balance, known as the radiation budget, allows the Earth to maintain the moderate temperature range essential for life as we know it.
There is positive radiation balance between 35°S and 40°N, which drives the weather systems. Ocean currents even out the difference
When incoming short-wave solar radiation (Figure 3), known as insolation, enters the Earth’s climate system, a portion of it is absorbed at the Earth’s surface, causing the surface to heat up. Some of the absorbed energy is then radiated outward in the form of long-wave infrared radiation. Cloud layers trap some of the radiation from the Earth’s surface, and then emit long-wave radiation, both outward and back to the surface. The temperature of the Earth’s surface is about 33°C higher due to long-wave radiation contribution from the atmosphere .
The amount of radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface that makes it back to space is the result of many interrelated influences, such as the amount of cloud cover, cloud heights, characteristics of cloud droplets, amount and distribution of water vapor and other greenhouse gases, land features, surface temperature, and the transparency of the atmosphere. In the warm tropical areas, low values of outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) correspond to large amounts of high, cold clouds while high values of OLR correspond to relatively clear areas or cloudy areas with low, warm clouds. In the extra-tropics OLR values typically decrease with decreasing temperature.

Let us suppose that the total heat (incoming solar radiation) received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 units (see fig. 10.2) Roughly 35 units of it are reflected back into space even before reaching the surface of the earth. Out of these 35 units, 6 units are reflected back to space from the top of the atmosphere, 27 units reflected by clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice covered surfaces.
Out of the remaining 65 units (100-35), only 51 units reach the earth’s surface and 14 units are absorbed by the various gases, dust particles and water vapour of the atmosphere.
The earth in turn radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation. Out of these 51 units of terrestrial radiation, 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere and the remaining 17 units directly go to space. The atmosphere also radiates 48 units (14 units of incoming radiation and 34 units of outgoing radiation absorbed by it) back to space. Thus 65 units of solar radiation entering the atmosphere are reflected back into the space. This account of incoming and outgoing radiation always maintains the balance of heat on the surface of the earth.

TAX REFORMS IN INDIA

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Tax Reforms in India

Sience 1990 ie the liberalization of Indian economy saw the beginning of Taxation reforms in the nation. The taxation system in the nation has been subjected to consistent and comprehensive reform. Following factors arise the need for tax reforms in India:-

  • Tax resources must be maximized for increased social sector investment in the economy.
  • International competitiveness must be imparted to Indian economy in the globalized world.
  • Transaction costs are high which must be reduced.
  • Investment flow should be maximized.
  • Equity should be improved
  • The high cost nature of Indian economy should be changed.
  • Compliance should be increased.

Direct & Indirect Tax Reforms

Direct tax reforms undertaken by the government are as follows:-

  • Reduction and rationalization of tax rates, India now has three rates of income tax with the highest being at 30%.
  • Simplification of process, through e-filling and simplifying the tax return forms.
  • Strengthening of administration to check the leakage and increasing the tax base.
  • Widening of tax base to include more tax payers in the tax net.
  • Withdrawal of tax exceptions gradually.
  • Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) was introduced for the ‘Zero Tax’ companies.
  • The direct tax code of 2010 replace the outdated tax code of 1961.

Indirect tax reforms undertaken by the government are as follows:-

  • Reduction in the peak tariff rates.
  • reduction in the number of slabs
  • Progressive change from specific duty to ad valor-em tax.
  • VAT is introduced.
  • GST has been planned to be introduced.
  • Negative list of services since 2012.

Water Resources : Availability

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Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. Planning, development and management of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.

There are four main sources of water:

(i) Surface water

(ii) Underground water

(iii) Atmospheric water, and

(iv) Oceanic water

(i) Surface water

Water found on the surface is called surface water. About two – third of the total surface water flows into three major rivers of the country – Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputras. The water storage capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far is about 17400 billion cubic metres. At the time of independence, the water storage capacity was only 180 billion cubic metres. Hence water storage capacity has increased about ten times.

India’s average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and snowmelt is estimated to be about 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). However, it is estimated that only about 690 BCM or 37 per cent of the surface water resources can actually be mobilised. This is because (i) over 90 per cent of the annual flow of the Himalayas rivers occur over a four month period and (ii) potential to capture such resources is complicated by limited suitable storage reservoir sites.

(ii) Underground water

It refers to all water below the water table to great depths. In the soil, both water and air coexist in the pore spaces. A profound consequence is that the capillary water in the soil can only be extracted by plant roots, within certain range of conditions. Ground water, on the other hand can be extracted by humans through wells. Ground water and soil water together constitute the lower part of the hydrological cycle. The annual potential natural of ground water recharge from rainfall in India is about 342.43 km3 , which is 8.56% of total annual rainfall of the country.

Underground water is used on a large scale in the areas where the rainfall is comparatively less. Underground water is used on a large scale in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh whereas Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnatake and Chhattisgarh are such states where inspite of less rainfall, the use of underground water is less. There is a great need to develop underground water resources here.

(iii) Atmospheric water

Evaporation and transpiration change liquid water into vapor, which ascends into the atmosphere due to rising air currents. Cooler temperatures aloft allow the vapor to condense into clouds and strong winds move the clouds around the world until the water falls as precipitation to replenish the earthbound parts of the water cycle. About 90 percent of water in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation from water bodies, while the other 10 percent comes from transpiration from plants.

(iv) Oceanic water

The Ocean plays a key role in this vital cycle of water. The ocean holds 97% of the total water on the planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the source of 86% of global evaporation. Besides affecting the amount of atmospheric water vapor and hence rainfall, evaporation from the sea surface is important in the movement of heat in the climate system. Water evaporates from the surface of the ocean, mostly in warm, cloud-free subtropical seas.