Earth’s Interior – Earthquake Waves – Shadow Zone

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Most of the knowledge we have about Earth’s deep interior comes from the fact that seismic waves penetrate the Earth and are recorded on the other side.  Earthquake ray paths and arrival times are more complex than illustrated in the animations, because velocity in the Earth does not simply increase with depth. Velocities generally increase downward, according to Snell’s Law, bending rays away from the vertical between layers on their downward journey; velocity generally decreases upward in layers, so that rays bend toward the vertical as they travel out of the Earth . Snell’s Law also dictates that rays bend abruptly inward at the mantle/outer-core boundary (sharp velocity decrease in the liquid) and outward at the outer core/inner core boundary (sharp velocity increase).

Major Points to remember about P S and Love waves

  • P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to ‘arrive’ at a seismic station.
  • The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth.
  • P waves are also known as compressional waves.
  • S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium.
  • Travelling only through the crust, surface wavesare of a lower frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.

Inter-governmental action

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  • IPCC
  • UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), 1992
  • Agenda 21
    • An action plan of UN relating to sustainable development adopted at the Earth Summit, 1992
  • UNFCCC
  • Kyoto Protocol

IPCC

  • 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP
  • tasked with reviewing and assessing the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change
  • Nobel Prize in 2007
  • The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself.
  • A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on topics relevant to the implementation of the (UNFCCC)
  • Till now, it has released four assessment reports (1990, 1995, 2001, 2007)
  • Fifth assessment report is due in 2014

UNFCCC

1992 at the Rio Summit.

194 members. Secretariat at Bonn.

Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

  • Annex I countries – industrialized countries and economies in transition
  • Annex II countries – developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries
  • Developing countries.

 

Conference Place Outcome
1995 COP1 Berlin The Berlin Mandate
1996 COP2 Geneva
1997 COP3 Kyoto Kyoto Protocol
1998 COP4 Buenos Aires
1999 COP5 Bonn
2000 COP6 /2001 COP6 The Hague/Bonn CDM and Joint Implementation adopted at Bonn
2001 COP7 Marrakesh
2002 COP8 New Delhi Delhi Declaration: Calls for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries
2003 COP9 Milan
2004 COP10 Buenos Aires
2005 COP11/MOP1 Montreal
2006 COP12/MOP2 Nairobi
2007 COP13/MOP3 Bali Bali Action Plan
2008 COP14/MOP4 Poznan, Poland
2009 COP15/MOP5 Copenhagen
2010 COP16/MOP6 Cancun
2011 COP17/MOP7 Durban, South Africa

 

Tarawa Climate Change Conference

  • In the lead up to COP16, the leaders of the world’s most climate-change vulnerable countries met in Kiribati in November 2010
  • Ambo Declaration was adopted
    • It calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change.

CoP-16/CMP-6, Cancun

COP-16 President: Patricia Espinosa, Mexico’s foreign secretary

COP-17 will be held in Durban

Issues

  • Forestry issues and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) plus
  • The developed countries are pushing for transparency from countries where they will fund climate change mitigation.
    • The assessment of carbon emission mitigation for developing countries is right now through domestic communication but is subject to international consultation and analysis. This push for transparency is a major contentious issue.
  • Fast-track finance: $ 30 bn had been committed at CoP-15. A large part of this funding is yet to come through.

 

Goals

Agreements Reached

  • The outcome of the summit was an agreement, not a binding treaty, which calls on rich countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as pledged in the Copenhagen Accord, and for developing countries to plan to reduce their emissions, to limit global warming to less than 2 degrees celsius above pre-industrial levels.
  • There should be no gap between the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, which expires in December 2012, and the second phase.
  • The agreement calls on the developed countries to “raise the level of ambition of the emission reductions to be achieved by them individually or jointly, with a view to reducing their aggregate level of emission of green house gases”
  • Allows flexibility in choosing the base year for setting emission reduction targets
  • Emissions trading and the project based mechanism under the KP shall continue to be available to Annex 1 parties as a means to meet their quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives.
  • The agreements recognize that in all climate change related action, human rights must be respected. They also recognise the need to engage with a broad range of stakeholders, including youth and persons with disability, and call for gender equality and effective participation of women and indigenous people in effective action on all aspects of climate change.
  • The BASIC group softened the three demands it had before the talks began
    • Necessity of a second commitment period to the Kyoto Protocol
    • Need to accelerate disbursement under the fast start finance in the form of new and additional resources through a multilaterally supervised mechanism
    • Continued dialogue on IPRs as part of the technology development and transfer issues.
  • REDD is a part of the package and proposed mitigation actions include conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks and sustainable management of forests.
    • REDD is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce GHGs but it can deliver ‘co-benefits’ such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation
    • REDD+ calls for activities with serious implication directed towards the local communities, indigenous people and forests which relate to reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation. It goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks
  • A Cancun Adaptation Framework has been proposed to strengthen and address implementation of action, and various kinds of assessments, apart from R&D and host of other issues.
  • Green Climate Fund The fund will be designed by a transitional committee, with 15 members from the developed countries and 25 from the developing nations.
  • Pledge by the developed countries to provide $100 bn annually till 2020.

 

Conclusion

  • UNFCCC secretary-general Christian Figueres emphasised that the main achievement of the Cancun meet has been to restore some degree of faith in the multilateral process.
  • The agreements don’t mention any reduction targets.
  • Though the agreements recognize the need to reduce the GHG emissions and curb the increase in global average temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, in the absence of any firm target, this could be an inadequate and vague provision
  • Bolivia has rejected the agreement, saying that it won’t support agreement without binding emission cuts.
  • In a sense, the summit was both a major step forward as well as a failure
  • It was a step forward because in recent years climate change negotiations had stumbled and this meeting helped overcome that
  • It was a failure because it failed to reach an agreement for binding restrictions that are required to avert global warming.
  • There was no agreement on how to extend the Kyoto Protocol, or how the $100 billion a year for the Green Climate Fund will be raised or whether developing countries should have binding emissions reductions.

Under the Cancun Agreements, the targets set by industrialised countries for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are recognised as part of the multilateral process. They must now draw up low-carbon development plans and strategies and also report their inventories annually. In the case of developing countries, actions for emissions reduction will be recognised officially; a registry will record and match their mitigation actions to finance and technology support from rich countries; and they will report their progress every two years. These form a good preamble for target-setting for all member-countries under an agreed framework at Durban next year.

Trivia

  • A large amount of energy used during the conference came from renewable sources
  • Around 10000 trees and bushes will be planted in Cancun

Role of India and its relevance

  • India can act as a mediator between the developing and developed countries
  • India’s approach to climate change negotiations has been governed by three factors – how to protect the country’s economic interest and environment agenda, to use climate change as a tool of global diplomacy and consolidate its position on world forums.
  • At Cancun, India was responsible for having made five insertions into the Agreement
    • In the section on shared vision, the figure of 50 pc has been dropped from identifying a global goal for substantially reducing emissions by 2050
    • The phrase access to sustainable development has been introduced in the context of working towards identifying a time-frame for global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions based on the best available scientific knowledge
    • International Consultation and Analysis (ICA) finds mention the agreements. It proposes to enhance the reporting for the non-Annex 1 parties or developing countries on mitigation  action and its effects and support received
  • At Cancun, India also proposed legally binding emission cuts.

 

 

Wars and Treaties

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War Year Treaty Gov General Battles et al
Anglo Marathas
First 1775-82 Began: Treaty of Surat

End: Treaty of Salbai

 Warren Hastings Battle of Wadgaon
Second 1803-05 Began: treaty of Bassein Lord Wellesley Battle of Assaye
Third 1816-19 Treaty of Gwalior Marquess  of Hastings Battle of Pindari

End of Peshwa rule
Anglo French
First 1746-48 Treaty of Aix-la-Chepelle Reason: Austrian succession in Europe 1746: Battle of Adyar/San Thome
Second 1749-54 War of succession between Nasir Jung (English) and Muzaffar Jung (French) after death of Nizam 1749: Battle of Ambur

 

Rise of Robert Clive
Third 1758-63 Treaty of Paris Reason: 7 years war in Europe 1760: Battle of Wandiwash (French defeat)
Anglo Mysore
First 1766-69
Second 1780-1784 Treaty of Mangalore Warren Hastings After death of Hyder Ali in 1782 Tipu led the war
Third 1789-92 Treaty of Seringapatnam Cornwallis Defeat of Tipu
Fourth 1799 Wellesley Battle of Seringapatnam. Death of Tipu.
Anglo Sikh War
First 1845-46 Treaty of Lahore Hardinge
Second 1848-49 Dalhousie Final Subjugation of the Sikhs

Read moreWars and Treaties

Institutional Factors of Agriculture (1) Land Tenure and Land Tenancy (ii) Land Holding

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Institutional Factors of Agriculture

(1) Land Tenure and Land Tenancy

(ii) Land Holding

LAND REFORMS IN INDIA

The basic objective of land reform is to do social justice with the tillers, land owners, landless labourers, and rural community with the set objective to provide security to the cultivators, to fix a rational rent, the conferment of title to the tiller and to increase the agricultural productivity.The entire concept of land reforms aims at the abolition of intermediaries and bringing the actual cultivator in direct contact with the state.

The scheme of land reforms includes:

  • abolition of intermediaries,and
  • tenancy reforms, i.e. regulation of rent, security of tenure for tenants, and confirmation of ownership on them
  • ceiling on land holdings and distribution of surplus land to landless labourers and small farmers,
  • agrarian reorganization including consolidation of holdings and prevention of subdivision and fragmentation,
  • organisation of co-operative farms, and
  • improvement in the system of land record keeping.

Abolition of Intermediaries

Mahalwari System

Ryotwari System

Tenancy Reforms

Rent Control

Ceiling of Landholdings

Consolidation of Holdings

  • Consolidation of holdings means to bring together in compact block, all the fields of land of a farmer which are well scattered in different parts of the village.
  • Under the scheme, all land in the village is first pooled into one compact block and it is divided into smaller blocks called chaks, and allotted to individual farmer.
  • This is a useful scheme which helped in overcoming the problem of fragmentation of holdings.
  • But unfortunately, the scheme has not been implemented in all the states of the country.
  • There are many hurdles in the implementation of consolidation of holdings in some of the states.

Computerized Land Records

  • The centrally sponsored scheme on computerization of land records was started in 1988-89.
  • At present, the scheme has been implemented in 582 districts out of the 640 districts of the country, leaving those districts where there are no proper land records.

 

Medieval India

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      North India      
Ghadvalas     Chandradeva*. Jaichandra fought Muhammad Ghur
Chandellas of Jejakabhukti/Bundelkhand   *Vidyadhara* & Yashovarman  
Paramaras of Malwa   Vakpati Munjal & *Bhoja*  
Chahamanas/Chauhans of Sakambhari   Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva, *Prithviraj III* (Chauhan)
Kalachuris of Tripuri   Kokalla, Gangeyadeva & *Karina* (Rajshekhara)
Chalukyas/Solankis of Gujarat   Bhima I & *Jayasimha Siddharaja*  
Kashmir     Avantivarman (supplanted Karkota dynasty to which
      belonged Lalitaditya Muktapida.  
  East & the North East      
Bengal (Sena dynasty)   Lakshmanasena (last Hindu ruler of Bengal)
Orissa     Avantavarman Chodaganga (Mother daughter of Rajendra
      Chola) of Eastern Gangas & Narsimha I (sun temple)
Assam (Ahoms)   Ahoms, a Shan tribe settled in mid 13th Century.
  Deccan & the South      
Chalukyas of Kalyani   *Vikramaditya VI* (Introduced Chalukya-Vikram era)
      Bilhana’s Vikramanankadevacharita is based on him
Yadavas of Devagiri   Bhillama V*, *Simhana*  
Kakatiyas of Warangal   Ganapati (ruled for 60 years)  
Cholas     Vijayalaya*, Rajaraja the Great, *Rajendra I*, Rajadhiraja,
      Rajendra II, Kulottunga I  
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra   Nrpakama*, Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II & Ballala III
Pandyas     *Jatavarman Sundara.Pandya I*  
  Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD)  
Slave Dynasty     Sayyid Dynasty  
1206-10 Qutubuddin Aibak.     1412-20   Khizr Khan
1210-36 Shamsuddin Iltutmish     1420-33   Mubarak Shah
1237-41 Razia Sultana     1433-43   Muhammad Shah
1241-46 Bahram Shah & Masud Shah 1443-51   Alauddin Alam Shah
1246-66 Nasirruddin Mahmud     Lodhi Dynasty  
1266-86 Balban     1451-89   Bahlul Lodhi
1286-90 Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimur 1489-1517   Sikander Lodhi
Khalji Dynasty     1517-26   Ibrahim Lodhi
1290-96 Jallaluddin Khalji          
1296-1316 Allauddin Khalji          
1316-20 Mubarak Shah & Khusrau khan      
Tughlaq Dynasty          
1320-25 Ghiasuddin Tughlaq          
1325-51 Muhammad bin Tughlaq          
1351-88 Firuz Shah Tughlaq          
1388-94 Mohammad Khan, Ghiasuddin Tughlaq Shah II,      
  Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin Muhammad, Humayun      
1394-12 Nasirrudin Mahmud Tughlaq      

 

    Delhi Sultanate      
Slave Qutbuddin Died while playing Chaugan. Aram Shah (short period)  
  Aibak          
  Shamsuddin He defeated Yalduz of Ghazni & Qubacha of Multan. Captured the
  Iltutmish fort  of  Ranthambor,  Lakhnauti.  Organized  the  iqta  system  (land
    assignment) & currency (introduced copper tanka & silver jital).
  Razia Sultana Married  Malik  Altunia  (Governor  of  Bhatinda).  Turkish  Aamirs
    played  the dominant  role  &  after Razia,  they enthroned  Bahram
    Shah, Masud Shah & Nasiruddin Mahmud in that order.  
  Balban (Ulugh Balban  was  Turkish  slave  of  Iltutmish.  He  poisoned  his  master
  Khan) Nasiruddin Mahmud. Killed the rebel governor of Bengal, Tughril
    Khan.  He  revived  the  practice  of  sijda  (prostration)  &  paibos
    (kissing monarch’s feet).      
    Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimurs had short duration.  
Khalji Jalaluddin Khalji Descended at the age of seventy. Later Alauddin murdered his uncle
    & father in law Jalaluddin & seized the throne.  
  Alauddin Khalji Lay  seige  to  Ranthambor  which  was  under  redoubtable  Hammir
    Deva  which  continued  till  one  year.  Later  Chittor  under  Ratan
    Singh (wife Padmini) fell & was renamed Kizhrabad. Malik Kafur
    campaigned against Kaktiyas (Warangal), Hoysalas
    (Dwarasamudra) & Pandyas. Mubarak Shah (son) & Khusrau khan
    had short rule.        
    Kharaj  (land  tax  –  50%),  Charai,  Gharii  (dwelling  tax).  First  to
    introduce permanent standing army, dagh &   chehra. Afghans &
    Sultan’s Indian officers rose to prominence.  
Tughlaq Ghiyasuddin Earlier called Ghazi Malik. Ghiasuddin had repelled mongol attack
  Tughlaq under khaljis before ascending throne. Attaked Kaktiyas & Bengal
    succesfully. Founded third city of Delhi – Tughlaqabad.  
  Muhammad bin Open consorting with Hindus & Jogis. Killed Ulemas, qazis who
  Tughlaq rose in rebellion. Shifted capital to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad),
    token currency (bronze coin-jittal). Shifted to Swargadwari during
    famine. At his death Barani commented, ‘at last the people got rid
    of him & he got rid of the people’. First sultan to visit the shrine of
    Moinuddin Chisti. Disciple of Shaikh Alauddin & Jinaprabha Suri.
  Firuz Shah Not a military leader. Conqured Thatta, Orissa (uprooted Jagannath
  Tughlaq idol),  Nagarkot.  Distributed  iqtas, made  them heritable increased
    salaries.   Founded   Fatehabad,   Hissar,   Firuzpur,   Jaunpur   &
    Firuzabad. Built canals. Influence of Ulema revived. First muslim
    ruler to impose Jaziya on Brahmins but abolished Ghari & Charai.
    Visited  the  shrine  of  Salar  Masud  Ghazi  &  became  fanatical.
    Removed   paintings   from   palace.   Got   many   sanskirt   works
    translated in Persian      

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    South India
Vijaynagar Harihara & These brothers were released by Muhammad Tughlaq & they laid
  Bukka the foundation of Vijaynagar empire (Sangama dynasty)
  Deva Raya I Succeded  his  father  Harihara  II.  Lead  a  crushing  defeat  against
    Sultan  Firuz  Shah  Bahmani.  Constuction  of  dam  across  the
    Tungabhadra. Italian, Nicolo de Conti came during his period.
  Deva Raya II Sometimes called Immadi Deva Raya. One of the greatest Sultan.
Bahamani Firuz Shah Great king. Lost to Deva Raya I & abdicated throne in favour of his
  Bahman brother Ahmad Shah I who transferred Bahmani Kingdom capital
    from  Gulbarga  to  Bidar.  Later  with  the  help  of  Iranian  prime
    minister Mahmud Gawan, Ahmad Shah I expanded considerably.
    Later Bhahmani kingdom got divied into five regions – Golconda,
    Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar & Bidar.
Tuluva *Kishna Deva After Deva Raya II came Suluva dyansty, which was replaced by
  Raya* Tuluva dynasty whose geatest ruler was Krishna Deva Raya. Ablest
    of Vijaynagar soverigns. After him Rama Raja succeded.
    Delhi Sultanate Continued
Timur Timur 1398 AD During the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq who fled the city. He
Invastion   assigned Delhi to Khizr Khan & hence Sayyid dynasty was born.
Sayyids Khizr Khan Khizr Khan’s reign as well as that of his successors, Mubarak Shah,
    Muhammad Shah & Alauddin Alam Shah was spent trying to
    control the rebellious leaders (esp. Khokhars led by Jasrath).
Lodis Bahlul Lodi First dynasty to be headed by Afghans. Principal event of Bahlul
    Lodi’s life was the annexation of Juanpur kingdom.
  Sikander Lodi Contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat & Rana Sanga of
    Mewar. The rent rolls of his reign formed the basis during Sher
    Shah Suri period. Imposed the Jaziya. The Bahluli coin remained in
    circulation till Akbar’s rule. He was the only sultan to be killed in
    the battle field.
    Smaller States
Assam Ahoms – Greatest ruler during this peiod was Suhungmung
Gujarat Muzaffar’s Shah grandson, Ahmad Shah I founded new capital Ahmedabad. Was the
  first sultan to levy Jaziya on hindus of Gujarat. *Mahmud Begarha* was the greatest
Mewar Rana Kumbha. His grandson was Rana Sanga.
Amber Under Prithviraj who fought under Rana Sanga at Khanua
Jaunpur Under Sharquis. Jaunpur is in eastern U.P.
Kashmir *Zianul Abidin*. Abolished Jaziya. Got Ramayana & Mahabharata translated into
  Persian. Allowed Kashmiri pandits to return to the state.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Mughal Empire
Babur Zahiruddin  Muhammad  Babur.  Ascended  throne  of  Farghana.  Daulat  Khan  Lodi,
1526-30 govenror of Punjab invited him to dethrone Ibrahim Lodi but later retracted. Ibrahim Lodi
  perished in 1526 at Panipat. Battle of Khanua in 1527 against Rana Sanga in which Babur
  won by effective use of artillery & mounted archers. Died around 1529 & burried at
  Kabul. Introduced Char Bagh (symmetric gardens).
Himayun His early fight was with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat whom he defeated but did not depose.
1530-56 In  Bihar  the  Afghans  rallied  under  Sher  Shah  Suri.  At  the  battle  of  Chausa  in  1939
  Himayun was defeated by Sher Shah. He finally left India in 1544 for the Safavid court. A
  decade after the death of Sher Shah, Himayun occupied back Delhi but died within seven
  months after a fall from the steps of his library.
Sher Shah Son of a small Jagirdar from Jaunpur. Defeated Raja Maldeo of Marwar in the battle of
1540-45 Samel in 1544 & also won Chittor. He realized Jaziya from Hindus. Revived system of
  Dagh & Chehra. Introduced a system of crop rates form the first time. Introduced uniform
  standard gold, silver & copper coins replacing the debased coins & introduced uniform
  weights. Maintained army through Sawars. Died in 1545 (5 years rule).
Akbar Born  in  Amarkot.  Bairam  Khan  invited  Hemu  (Afhan  assumed  title  of  Hemchandra
1556-1605 Vikramaditya) in 1556 at the second battle of Panipat in which Hemu was slained. Later
  Akbar discharged Bairam Khan & married his widow. Akbar’s foster mothers son Adam
  Khan  won  Malwa  defeating  Baz  Bahadur.  Won  at  Gondwana,  Chittor  (Udai  Sing),
  Ranthambor & Marwar. Rana Pratap ascended Mewar after the death of Udai Singh. In
  1576 the Haldi ghati war between Man Singh (grandson of Bhara Mal of Amber who
  entered imperial services) & Rana Pratap. In 1571 Akbar shifted his capital to Fatehpur
  Sikri.  Later  marched  against  Ahmedabad,  Kabul  (deposed  Mirza  Hakim).  In  1585  he
  trasnferred his capital to Lahore. Later won Baluchistan, Qandhar, Ahmadnagar (Chand
  Bibi), Khandesh (Akbar’s last major miliary campaign). In 1579 he abolished Jaziya. He
  issued Mahzar which entitle him to choose one of the interpretations of Muslim law. Only
  Raja Birbal accepted Din-i-Ilahi. Todar Mal, Bhagwan das, Man Singh declined it. He
  abolished the position of wazir after Bairam khan. Revived chehra & dagh.
Jehangir Jehangir’s elder brother Khusrau revolted thrice against Akbar & was blinded. He became
1605-27 the  first  ruler  to  conquer  Kangra.  Amar  Singh,  Son  of  Rana  Pratap  at  Ajmer  also
  surrendered. The Persians got control of Qandhar back in their second attempt. Deccan
  (ruled by Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar) was subdued again by prince Khurram. Jehangir
  ordered the murder of fifth sikh guru Arjun Dev (the first to be murdered by Mughals).
  Visited dargah of Moinuddin Chisti several times. Married Iranian widow (Mehrunisa),
  who was given the title Nur Jahan.  Nur Jahan’s brother was Asaf khan whose daughter
  Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu) was married to Shah Jahan.
Shah Sent his two sons Dara  Shukoh& Aurangzeb as hostages to his fathers court. He was
Jahan helped in his throne capture by his father in law, Asaf Khan. Ordered execution of his
1628-58 brothers  &  their  sons  after  accession.  Increased  control  over  Bundelkhand  (Ruled  by
  Jehangir’s hard core friend Bir Singh Deo’s son Jujhar Singh). Qandhar was capture for a
  brief period but lost back to the Safavids. His Peacock throne & capital Shahjahanabad are
  remembered. Reformed the zat & sawar system. Iranis & Turanis dominated the nobility.
  Instituted month scales on the basis of difference between official estimate of income
  (Jama) & actual amount collected (hasil).
Aurangzeb War of succession between Dara, Shah Shuja, Auranzeb & Murad – all sons of Mumtaz
1658-1707 Mahal. Mir Jumla was deputed by Aurangzeb to restore authority in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
  Later in Assam Ahom king agreed to be a vassal of Mughals. He banned Nauroz, the

 

Persian new year, banned painters, musicians, drinking & women pilgrimage. Pilgrimage tax on Hindu abolished by Akbar reinstated. Destroyed the Keshava Rai Temple at Mathura built by Bir Singh Bundela.Reimposed Jaziya tax. His son prince Akbar revolted

 

  • was sheltered by Maratha ruler Sambhaji. Aurangzeb lay seize on Bijapur & Golconda

 

  • He was also known as Alamgir.

 

Shivaji Shivaji tutor was Dadaji Kond-deva. Shivaji killed Afzal Khan (general of Ali Adil Shah
  II) while meeting. Later he almost defeated the governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan who
  was replaced by Prince Mauzzam on orders of Aurangzeb. Raja Jai Singh was given the
  responsibility of tackling Shivaji who won & conducted the treaty of Purandhar. Later
  Shivaji visited mughal court & was captured but escaped.
Later Shivaji – Sambhaji – Rajaram (Sambhaji’s brother). In the meanwhile Sambhaji’s son
Marathas Shahu was taken to the Mughal household. Later when Rajaram died, his widow Tara Bai
  declared her four year old son Shivaji II, king & herself the regent. Later Shahu was
  released by Bahadur Shah I who appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa. Baji Rao I
  succeded  who  was  the  most  charismatic  leader  in  Maratha  history  after  Shivaji.He
  conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand & even raided Delhi. He was succeded by his son  Balaji
  Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II)
  who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a terrible blow at
  the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761 at Panipat.
        Selective Treaties & Battles    
Treaty of Purandhar   Jai Singh defeated Shivaji. Shivaji had to surrender 23 out of the thirty
        five forts held by him.    
Treaty of Palkhed   Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to recognize Maratha claimsto chauth
        & sardeshmuhi in the Deccan (durin Baji Rao I’s tenure).
Treaty of Warina   Claims of Tara Bai settled by granting her Kolhapur
Treaty of Bhalke   Marathas won large parts of Khandesh by invading Karinataka.
Battle of Talikota (1565)   Between Vijayanagara Empire (Rama Raya, son of Achutya Raya) and
        Deccan sultanates, resulted in Vijayanagar’s defeat.
        Books of Medieval Period    
  1. Taj-ul-Maasir   Hasan Nizami  
  2. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri   Minhaj Siraj  
  3. Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi (Most important work of sultanate period) Ziauddin Barani  
    Fatwah-i-Jahandari      
  4. Futuh-us-Salatin (establishment of Bahmani Kingdom) Isami  
  5. Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi   Afif  
  6. Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi Yahya Sirhindi  
  7. Akbar Nama   Abul Fazal  
  8. Tabaqat-I-Akbari   Nizammudin Ahmad  
  9. Muntakhab-al-tawarikh   Badauni  
  10 Badshahnama/Padshahnama Abdul Hamid Lahori  
  11 Muntakhab-ul Lubab (Aurangzeb’s reign) Khafi Khan  
  12 Mirat-i-Ahmadi   Ali Muhammad Khan  
  13 Padmavat (on Padmini – wife of Ratan Singh, King of Chittor) Malik Mohammad Jaisi  
  14 Tughluq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa Amir Khusro  
  15 Marwar ra Pargani ri Vigat (Info on Rajasthan) Munhta Nainsi  

 

16 Chandayan Maulana Daud
17 Himayun Nama Gulbadan Begum
18 Bhavartha Dipika Gyaneshwara
19 Safarinama or Rihla Ibn Batuta
20 Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography) Jehangir
21 Tarikh-i-Shershahi Abbas Sarwani
22 Tuzuk-i-Baburi/ Baburinama (in Turkish –Autobiography) Babur
23 Shahjahannama Inayat Khan
24 Dayabhaga Jimuta Vahna
25 Periya Puranam (12th book of Tamil Veda called Tirumurai) Shekkilar
26 Sur Sagar (Life of Krishna) Sur Das
27 History of Aurangzeb, The fall of the Mughal Empire Jadunath Sarkar
28 Mahmud of Ghazni Mohammad Habib
29 The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate I.H. Qureshi
30 Foundation of Muslim Rule in India A.B.M. Habibullah
31 Agrarian System of Mughal India Irfan Habib

 

Monuments of Medieval Period
College of Ajmer (Converted to Adhai din ka Jhompra) Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva
Rudra Mahakala temple, Siddhapura Jayasimha Siddharaja
Jagannath Temple at Puri Anantavarman Chodaganga
Sun Temple, Konark Narasimha I ( E. Gangas)
Brihadesvara/Rajarajeswara temple at Thanjavur Rajaraja the Great
Quwwat-al-Islam mosque, Delhi Qutbuddin Aibak
Adhai din ka Jhompra Qutbuddin Aibak
Himayun’s Tomb Akbar’s step mother Haji Begum
Tomb of Sher Shah at Sasaram Sher Shah
Agra Fort Akbar
Buland Darwarza (commemorate Gujarat victory) Akbar
Shalimar Garden Shah Jahan
Badshahi Mosque at Lahore (largest in subcontinent) Aurgangzeb
Man Mandir, Gwalior Man Singh
Hauz Khas Alauddin Khalji
Akbar’s Mausoleum at Sikandara Akbar. Completed by Jehangir.
Madrasa at Bidar Mahmud Gawan

 

    Kings & their Court Jewels
1. Lakshmansena Jayadeva, Halayudha, Sridharadasa.
2. Vikramaditya VI (Chalukya) Bilhana (Vikramanankadevacharita) Vijnanaeshvara (Mitakshara)
3. Sharqis of Jaunpur Malik Muhammad Jaisi
4. Akbar Tansen, Todar Mal, Tulsidas (just contemporary)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

          Prominent Foreign Travellers  
  1.   Marco Polo   Venetian Traveller visited Pandya kingdom  
  2.   Ibn Batuta   Muhammad bin Tughlaq  
  3.   Nicolo Conti   Italian visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Deva Raya I  
  4.   Abdur Razaq   Visited the court of Zamorin in Calicut & travelled to Vijaynagar  
            during the reign of Deva Raya II  
  5.   Nikitin     Russian, visited Bahmani kingdom & Gujarat  
  6.   Nuniz     Portuguese, stayed at Vijayanagar during Krishna Deva Raya  
  7.   Ralph Fitch   British during Akbar’s reign  
  8.   William Hawkins   English merchant. Received a mansab from Jehangir  
  9.   Thomas Roe   Ambassador of English King James I to Jehangir’s court.  
            Obtained trade concessions. Wrote “Embassy”.  
  10.   Peter Mundy   English traveller during Shah Jahan’s reign.  
  11.   Tavernier   French jweller. Aurangzeb’s reign.  
  12.   Bernier     French Physician. Most important account of all European.  
            Aurangzeb’s reign. Wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’.  
  13.   Nicolo Manucci   Italian. Aurangzeb’s reign.  
            Jargon of Medieval Period  
  Mamluk White slaves   Ur Common village assembly (Chola  period)  
  Muqaddam Village head   Nagaram Assembly of merchants (Chola  period)  
  Sondhar loans   Sabha Assembly of Brahmins (Chola  period)  
  Khots Village head   Khutba A sermon made in Friday mosque  
  Sharia Muslim law   Madad-i-Maash Tax free grants of land  
  Subas Provinces   Waqf Grants to muslim religious establishment  
  Mir Bakshi Military department   Pargana Around Hundred villages.  
  Ummah Muslim believers   Sadr us sadur Ecclesiastical affairs  
  Mir Saman Supply department   Qanungos Keeper of revenue records  
  Shiqdar Headed Pargana.   Zabt Revenue based on land measurement  
  Amils Revenue officer   Ibadat Khana House of worship (Fatehpur Sikri)  
  Hundis Bills of Exchange   Diwan Function of finance (Akbar’s time)  
  Dhimmis Non-Muslim people   Wujuhat Taxes on cattle,grazing,orchards.  
  Vimans Towers of temple   Shaikhzadas Indian Muslims nobility  
  Din   Religion   Peshwa Prime minister (Shivaji)  
  Ganj   A grain market   Amatya Revenue minister (Shivaji)  
  Gomashta Commercial agent   Sumant Foreign minister (Shivaji)  
  Hun   A gold coin   Bargir Cavalrymen (horse belonged to leader)  
  Dam   Coin (1/4th of rupee)   Nankar Portion of revenue given to Zamidar  
  Sarkar A number of Paragana   Diwan-i-Arz Ministry of Military Affairs  
  Khums Tax on plunder   Diwan-i-Insha Ministry of Royal Correspondences  
  Zawabit Non Shariat state laws   Diwan-i-Risalat Religiour affairs  
  Faujdar Incharge of Sarkar   Diwan-i-Kul Wazir or chief imperial fiscal minister.  
  Malfuzat Sayings of sufi saint   Diwan-i-Wizarat Department of finance  
  Tankah Silver coin   Khalisa Land revenue directly for imperial treasury  
  Kanqah Sufi lodging   Wilayat Spiritual territory of a sufi  
  Misl   Sikh Regions  (12)   Umra Collective term for nobility  
              Watandar Desais & Deshmukh (collective term)  

 

Extent of Mughal Empire at Akbar’s Death

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

 

1.Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD. The Quran alongwith the Hadith (sayings of the prophet) is venerated as supreme sources of authority in Islam. Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina is known as Hijra & the muslim calendar commences from this year. At the battle of Badr Muhammad first wielded sword to assert his prophethood. Quibla the direction to be faced during prayer changed from Jerusalem to Mecca.

 

2.Prophet’s son-in-law Ali was regarded as lawful immediate by some section (shiis) while other group considered his close followers Abu Bakr, Umar & Uthman as legal heir (came to be known as Sunnis).

 

3.Mahmud of Ghazni was the son of Subuktigin (founder of Ghaznavid dynasty). Subuktgin had defeated the Hindhshahi ruler Jaipal. Utbi was the court historian of Ghazni. Mahmud raided 17 times which

 

 

 

 

 

included Nagarkot, Mathura, Kanauj & Somanath temple (1025 AD when Chalukya king Bhima I was ruling Gujarat). He patronized Al-Beruni.

 

4.Muhammad Ghur first invasion was against Multan which he won easily. His invasion of Gujarat ended in a crushing defeat at the hands of the Chalukyan forces. Then followed Battle of Tarain I & II, invasion of Ghadavala ruled by Jaichandra. After Ghur’s death his senior slave Tajuddin Yalduz occupied Ghazni, Qubacha occupied Multan, Ali Mardan took Lakhnauti (Bihar-Bengal) while Aibak took Delhi. At the same time Bhaktiyar Khalji, another slave raided province of Bihar destroying monasteries of Nalanda & Vikramshila & even attacked the Bengal ruler Lakshmanasena. Eastern Chalukyas ruled at Vengi.

 

5.Chola king Rajendra I captured whole of Sri Lanka & reasserted Chola soverignity over Kerala & Pandyan country. He conquered north upto Ganga & assumed the title of Gangaikonda. Marco Polo visited the Pandyan Kingdom around 1293 AD.

 

6.Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign saw the rise of two independent states in south – Vijaynagar & Bahamani. The Tungabhadra doab had been a source of conflict between the Cholas & the western Chalukyas, between Yadavas & Hoysalas as well as between the Vijaynagar & the Bahmani Kindom.

 

7.The largest indigenous industry during the Delhi sultanate period was that of textiles. During Firuz Shah the slaves rose to an all time high. While India’s indigenous architecture is trabeate (space spanned by beams laid horizontally), the Islamic form is arcuate (arches are used to bridge a space).

 

8.All the Lodi rulers were buried on the Bagh-i-Jud known today as Lodi Garden. The coins of Mahmud Ghazni, Iltutmish, Nasirudin Mahmud, Balban, Alauddin Khalji bear the name of Abbasid Caliph.

 

  1. Mansabdars had dual ranks – zat (personal rank & expenses) & sawar (cavalry rank). Land revenue systems were batai (crop divided between state & the peasant), hast-o-bud (official inspection for estimation), kankut system (estimation of land & yield), nasaq system (based on previous estimates).

 

  1. The sants of the Vithoba cult & their followers called Varkari emphasized annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur (Mahrashtra). The most important saint was Jnaneshvar. Saguna Bhakti (Tulsi Das, Chaitanya, Surdas, Mirabai, Nimbarka& Vallabha) believed in doctrine of incarination while Nirguna bhakti (Kabir) worshiped formless aspect of divinity.

 

  1. Guru Angad developed the Gurmukhi script. Guru Arjun Dev completed Adi Granth. Guru Hargobind constructed the Akal Takht at the Golden Temple & asked his followers to built the fort of Lohgarh. Enraged Jehangir had the Guru imprisoned for 2 years.

 

  1. Of the various Sufi orders in India the Chishti (founder was Moinuddin Chisti) & Suharawadi (Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya whose Khanqah at Multan became an important pilgrimage centre) orders (silsilas)

 

 

 

 

 

were the most prominent. Other prominent saints were Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki & Nizamuddin

 

Auliya. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Naqshbandi order) was contemporary of Jehangir.

 

  1. There was no Maratha in Akbar’s nobility & only one in that of Jehangirs. In Aurangzeb’s time the Marathas increased considerably & foreign nobility declined. Dara Shukoh brother of Auranzeb got 52 Upanishads converted into Persian, the collective work being known as the Sirr-i-Akbar. Murshid Quli Khan was a talented revenue officer during the time of Shah Jahan who helped prince Aurangzegb streamline the revenues in Deccan.

 

  1. Uprisings during Aurangzeb period were Jats (Gokula, Rajaram, Churaman & Surajmal-the adopted son of Badan Singh), Satnami, Sikhs (Guru Harkishan summoned to Delhi – Bangla Sahib is the site where he resided; Guru Teg Bahadur was beheaded at present Sis Ganj Gurudwara site; Guru Gobind Singh born in Patna), Bundelas of Ochha (under Chhatrasal)

 

  1. On Baisakhi day in 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa panth. In the succession that followed after Aurangzeb, Govind Singh supported Bahadur Shah in the hope of getting justice against Wazir Khan (who killed Guru’s son) but all in vain. Gobind Singh appointed Banda Bahadur (later kille Wazir khan) to wage war against the mughals but he failed & was humiliated before being executed.

 

  1. Shivaji assumed titles of Chhatrapati, Gobrahmance Pratipalak (protector of cows & Brahmins). His consecration marked the commencement of a new era, the Rajyabhisheka saka.

 

  1. Bengal was the main silk centre. Land owner ship was Khudkhasta (Owner & land in the same village), Pahikashta (different village) & Muqarari raiya (He leased his spare land to tenants called muzarin). During mughal period there is no evidence of joint ownership of land. Slave trade focus shifted from Multan to Kabul. Freshly minted coins had a greater value than those minted in previous regimes.

 

  1. Thomas Roe went to Jehangirs court to get concessions for operation. Dutch obtained a farman from the Sultan of Golconda to operate at Masulipatnam.

 

  1. The Mughal school of painting began with Himayun & reached its pinnacle during Jehangir. Himayun also started the Mina Bazar for royal ladies.

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts from Mocks:

 

  1. Qutbuddin Aibak was not recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad. Kashmir was never a part of sultanate of Delhi. ‘Janam Sakhis’ are the biographical writings abouth the Sikh gurus. The utterances of Namdev, Kabir, Ravidas, Shaikh Fariduddin Masud (Sufi Saint), Dhanna have been included in Adi Granth. Printing press was introduced in India by the Portuguese.

 

 

 

 

 

  1. The most important system of land revenue was the Zabti system. The term ‘Urs’ referred to the death anniversary of a Sufi saint. The Sisodiyas of Mewar did not submit to Akbar during his reign. Shahjahan did not write his autobiography. Bairagis in India were a Vaishnavite sect.

 

  1. Portuguese-Dutch-English-French was the correct sequence of foreigners coming to India. In medieval period Polaj was the most fertile land & banjar the least fertile.

 

  1. Bijapur (Adil Shahi Dynasty), Ahmadnagar (Nizamshahi dynasty), Golkonda (Qutbshahi dynasty), Bidar (Barid Shahi dynasty).

 

  1. Delhi Sultanate reached its maximum limit during Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Invasion of Chengiz Khan (Iltutmish reign), Invations of Tarmahirin (Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign), Invasion of Nadir Shah (Muhammad Shah) & Invasion of Timur (Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq).

 

  1. Mir Syed Ali, Daswant & Khwaja Abdus Samad were famous painters at the court of Himayun & Akbar. Mansur & Bishan Das were leading court painters under Jehangir. The translation of Mahabharata in Persian (Razmnama) was carried out during the reign of Akbar by Faizi. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur s built over the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah.

 

  1. The dominant form of decoration employed in the buildings of the sultanate period is called arabesque. Various regional languages of medieval India arose out of Apabhramsa. The pushtimarg was the philosophy of Guru Vallabhacharya (Surdas was his disciple).

 

  1. Moinuddin Chisti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Farduddin Masud (Pak Patan, Pakistan) & Khwaja Syed Mudammad Gesu Daraz (Gulbarga) are the famous sufi shrines.

 

  1. Krittivasa translated Ramayana into Bengali. Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna & other low cast bhakti saints were belived to be disciples of Ramananda. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda founded the city of Hyderabad. Arabs were not a part of Mughal nobility. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan was a mughal noble & poet under Akbar.

 

  1. The sufi silisilas were Suhrawadi, Firdausi, Shattari, Chisti, Qadiri & Naqshbandi. Amer was Jaipur, Marwar (Jodhpur), Mewar (present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand and Udaipur).

BT Brinjal & Risk assessment

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BT Brinjal

  • In 2006, Maharashtra Hybird Seeds Company submitted biosafety and efficacy data to the GEAC and applied for permission to conduct large-scale trials
  • At the same time SC imposed a ban on the on-going field trials
  • An expert committee was constituted by GEAC to look into the concerns raised by several civil society actors
  • SC later lifted the ban on field trials
  • After a series of reviews the environment ministry declared a moratorium on Bt Brinjal in Feb 2010

Risk assessment

  • Civil society has demanded that the science of risk assessment be made rigourous, independent and peer-reviewed

Soil Pollution

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Soil Pollution is the Contamination of the soil by human and natural activities which may cause harmful effects on living beings.
This may be due to the following factors.

(i) Industrial wastes: Industries are the major causes for soil pollution Textiles, steel, paper, Cement, oil, dyeing and other industries are responsible for soil pollution. Toxic organic compounds and phenol destroy the fertility of the soil.
(ii) Biological agents – Fungi, protozoa, bacteria are important Biological agents for soil pollution. The human and animal wastes, garbage, waste water generates heavy soil pollution.
(iii) Radio active pollutants: Atomic reactor, nuclear radio active devices releases radio active pollutants. These pollutants enter the land and accumulate there by causing soil pollution.
(iv) Pesticides: Pesticides pollute the soil. There are of two types (i) chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide (2) Organic phosphorous pesticides. Common chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are DDT, BHC.

Organo phosphorous insecticides are synthetic chemicals like Malathion and parathion.

DDT reduces the activity of sex hormones of male and female. The land with fungicides insecticides causes diseases to human beings.

Fertilizers: These discharge N, Na, K, S, Nitrates etc., into the soil. The nitrate causes cancer.

Polymer, Plastics & other water: These materials appear as garbage. Solid wastes and their quantities increase day by day. They pollute the atmospheres, land and also water badly.

Agricultural practices: Modern agriculture practices pollute the soil to a large extent. Today huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides are added to increase the crop field. Apart from these farm wastes, manure debris, soil erosion containing inorganic chemicals are causing soil pollution.
Effect of soil pollution
1.Organic wastes enter the soil pores and decompose. Pathogenic bacteria spread infection.
2.Compounds containing As, Hg, Cr, Ni, Zn and Fe are toxic to life.
3.Fluorides affect plant development
4.Water logging and salinity increase the dissolved salt content in the soil. Some plants are very sensitive to soil PH and salinity.
Thus land becomes unfit for irrigation.
Control of soil pollution
1.Treat the sewage before land disposal
2.Rotate the crop pattern to allow the soil replenish the nutrients.
3.Preserve and protect top fertile soil, control soil erosion by tree plantation.
4.Fertilizers may be applied only after estimating the soil and crop measures.
5.Production of natural fertilizers Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be avoided. Bio pesticides should be used instead of toxic chemical pesticides.
6.Proper hygienic condition- People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits.
7.Recycling and reuse of waster – The wastes such as paper, plastic, metals, glasses should be recycled and used.

Basic Structure of Indian Constitution

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Basic Structure

The basic structure doctrine is an Indian judicial principle that the Constitution of India has certain basic features that cannot be altered or destroyed through amendments by the parliament. Key among these “basic features”, are the fundamental rights granted to individuals by the constitution. The doctrine thus forms the basis of a limited power of the Indian Supreme Court to review and strike down constitutional amendments enacted by the parliament which conflict with or seek to alter this “basic structure” of the constitution.

In 1965, The “basic features” principle was first expounded by Justice J.R. Mudholkar in his dissent in the case of Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan.

In 1973, the basic structure doctrine triumphed in Justice Hans Raj Khanna’s judgment in the landmark decision of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala. Previously, the Supreme Court had held that the power of parliament to amend the constitution was unfettered. However, in this landmark ruling, the court adjudicated that while parliament has “wide” powers, it did not have the power to destroy or emasculate the basic elements or fundamental features of the constitution.

In 1975, Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, a Constitutional Bench of the Supreme Court used the basic structure doctrine to strike down the 39th amendment and paved the way for restoration of Indian democracy.

In 1980, The Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act had been enacted by the government of Indira Gandhi in response to the Kesavananda judgment in an effort to reduce the power of the judicial review of constitutional amendments by the Supreme Court. In the Minerva Mills case, Nani Palkhivala successfully moved the Supreme Court to declare sections 4 & 55 of the 42nd amendment as unconstitutional. Chief Justice Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud explained in the Minerva Mills judgment that since the power of Parliament to amend the constitution was limited, as had been previously held through the basic structure doctrine in the Kesavananda case, the parliament could not by amending the constitution convert this limited power into an unlimited power (as it had purported to do by the 42nd amendment). In addition, the court also ruled that the parliament’s “power to amend is not a power to destroy”.

The basic structure doctrine applies only to constitutional amendments. It does not apply to ordinary acts of parliament, which must itself be in conformity with the constitution.

In Kesavananda there were differing opinions even among the majority for what the “basic structure” of the constitution comprised.

Chief Justice Sikri, writing for the majority, indicated that the basic structure consists of the following:

  • The supremacy of the constitution.
  • A republican and democratic form of government.
  • The secular character of the Constitution.
  • Maintenance of the separation of powers.
  • The federal character of the Constitution.

Justices Shelat and Grover in their opinion added three features to the Chief Justice’s list:

  • The mandate to build a welfare state contained in the Directive Principles of State Policy.
  • Maintenance of the unity and integrity of India.
  • The sovereignty of the country.

Justices Hegde and Mukherjea, in their opinion, provided a separate and shorter list:

  • The sovereignty of India.
  • The democratic character of the polity.
  • The unity of the country.
  • Essential features of individual freedoms.
  • The mandate to build a welfare state.

Justice Jaganmohan Reddy preferred to look at the preamble, stating that the basic features of the constitution were laid out by that part of the document, and thus could be represented by:

  • A sovereign democratic republic.
  • The provision of social, economic and political justice.
  • Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
  • Equality of status and opportunity.

The interpretation of the basic structure has since evolved in numerous other court rulings since the Kesavananda judgment.

 

Agriculture of Nagaland

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Agriculture of Nagaland

  • Nagaland, the smallest hilly state situated at the extreme northeastern end of India, lies between 25° 6′ and 27° 4′ latitude, North of Equator and between the Longitudinal line 93° 20’ E and 95° 15’E.
  • The state shares its boundary with Assam on the West, Myanmar on the East, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam on the North and Manipur on the South.
  • One prominent feature of traditional agriculture practices in Nagaland is its high degree of agro-biodiversity.
  • This high agro-biodiversity evolved through exploitation of local site factors, consideration of food security for the family, judicious selection of crops and varieties for cultivation, diversified forms of traditional agricultural systems and in recent years, the cash income generating possibilities.
  • There are four diversified forms of traditional agriculture practiced by the rural villagers of Nagaland: the Jhum (Shifting Cultivation) System, Terrace Rice Cultivation (TRC), Firewood Reserve Forests and Home Gardens.

Agro-Climatic Zones

  • In general, Nagaland has a typical monsoon climate with variants ranging from tropical to temperate conditions.
  • In the plains and low altitudes, the temperatures remains high almost throughout the year excepting the month of December and January, and in the hills and higher altitudes the temperature remain low.
  • The climate is quite invigorating throughout the year. The year is divided into four seasons: Winter, Pre-monsoon, Monsoon and Retreading Monsoon.
  • For agriculture purpose, it is divided into two seasons : Winter (Rabi) and Summer (Kharif)
  1. Sub Alpine temperate zone (1500-3500m MSL)
  2. Sub tropical Hill Zone (1000-1500m MSL)
  3. Sub tropical Plain zone (400-1000m MSL)
  4. Mild tropical Hill zone (200-800m MSL)

Land Use Pattern

  • The total geographical area of the State is 16,57,900 Ha. Out of which 7, 22,464 Ha. are under cultivable area which comes to 43.58%.
  • The major land use pattern is slash and burn cultivation locally known as
  • The Angami and Chakesang tribes have on the other hand, developed a system of Wet Terrace Rice Cultivation (WTRC) which is practiced alongside jhum cultivation.
  • Besides, there are other land use systems such as Horticulture and Agro-forestry, which are of recent origin.
  • The combination of horticultural crops with forestry will ensure parmenent plant cover on hill-slops.

Feature of Agriculture of Nagaland

  • Nagaland has basically an agricultural economy.
  • Over 70% of the population is dependent on Agriculture of Nagaland.
  • The main crops are rice, millet, maize and pulses.
  • Cash crops like sugarcane and potato are also becoming popular.
  • Coffee, cardamom and tea are grown as plantation crops in Nagaland.
  • Rice is the dominant crop and also the staple diet of the people, of the gross cropped area under food grains, rice accounts for about 84.4%.
  • Oil seeds are also an important crop which includes Rapeseed, mustard etc.
  • Coffee cardamom and tea are grown as plantation crops in Nagaland.
  • Principal crops are Arums, yams, millet, maize, potatoes and sugarcane. Vegetable crops are melon, cucumbers, spinach leaf, mustard, onion, chillies, carrots, tomatoes, brinjal etc.
  • The two methods of cultivation among the Naga tribes are jhuming and terrace cultivation.
  • The area under jhum cultivation is about 87.339 hectares and under terraced cultivation is about 62,091 hectares.

Jhum Cultivition of Agriculture of Nagaland

  • In jhuming, the individual parcels out his field into a number of plots and cultivates a particular plot for one or two years.
  • In the following year, he shifts to the next plot and that also is cultivated for the same period. In this way, after the rotation is completed, the first plot is taken up again.
  • The jungle is felled and burnt and the crops are sown on the ground fertilized by ashes.
  • The complete rotation of plots may take between six to ten years depending upon the acreage of the field.
  • The longer this duration is, the more fertile the soil becomes and better the crops are, this method of cultivation is in vogue among the Semas, Aos and Lothas.
  • Jhuming has its obvious disadvantages. A large area of land is required for cultivation. Besides, the crops is dependent on rainfall.

Terrace Cultivation of Agriculture of Nagaland

  • A more modern method is that of preparing terraced fields.
  • The Angamis are experts in this art.
  • The complete hillside is cut, beautiful terraces whose width would depend up on the gradient of the feature, are made.
  • The fields are irrigated by a net work of water channels.
  • Normally the terraces are so graduated that water flows down conveniently from one terrace to the other below it, and so on.
  • Bamboo pipes are used to regulate the flow of water.
  • The excavating of the terraces requires a colossal effort, and one marvels at the amount of human energy expended in cutting them into shape, but these terraced fields, once prepared, are much easier to maintain than the jhum plots.
  • They have also the advantage of being closer to the village site.
  • The State Government is trying to persuade the villagers to change over from jhuming to terracing.
  • The Government is in fact, making all out efforts to improve the agriculture.
  • It has under taken a number of irrigation projects, supplied pumping set to farmers, started community Development projects, set up seed farms and established an agricultural research centre.
  • As a result of these measures, there has already been a sustained increase in the tonnage of rice produced.

Agriculture of Nagaland

Crop Rotations:

  1. Paddy- Mustard
  2. Paddy- maize
  3. Paddy- linseed
  4. Maize – Black gram
  5. Soybean –fallow
  6. Paddy-cabbage
  7. Maize- winter vegetables
  8. Cucurbits – winter vegetables
  9. Paddy –fallow
  10. Maize –fallow
  11. Ginger –fallow

Crop Sequences:

  1. Paddy followed by Mustard
  2. Paddy followed by maize
  3. Paddy followed by linseed
  4. Maize followed by Black gram
  5. Soybean followed by fallow
  6. Paddy followed by cabbage
  7. Maize followed by winter vegetables
  8. Cucurbits followed by winter vegetables
  9. Paddy mono crop
  10. Maize mono crop
  11. Ginger mono crops

 

Inter Cropping: Jhum paddy maize, colocasia, soybean, cucurbits

Mixed Cropping Jhum paddy maize, colocasia, soybean, cucurbits

Cash Crops: Cotton Sugarcane, Jute, Tea, Coriander

Rice

  • Cultivation of rice requires hot and moist climate.
  • It is a Kharief crop and is sown in March-April and harvested in Autumn.
  • Sufficient water must cover the fields.
  • Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions. The temperature should be fairly high i.e. 24°C mean monthly temperature with average temperature of 22°C to 32°C.
  • Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150-300 cm is suitable for its growth, where rainfall is less than 100 cm, rice is cultivated with the help of irrigation.
  • Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy soil provides the ideal conditions.

Maize

  • It requires hot dry climate.
  • Rainfall required for maize varies from 75 cms to 125 cms.
  • It is sown in May-July and harvested in August-November

Salient Features of  Indian/Agriculture of Nagaland

  1. Subsistence Agriculture of Nagaland: Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture. This type of Agriculture of Nagaland has been practised in India for several hundreds of years and still prevails in a larger part of India in spite of the large scale change in agricultural practices after independence.
  2. Pressure of population on Agriculture of Nagaland : Despite increase in urbanization and industrialization, about 70% of population is still directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.
  3. Mechanization of farming: Green Revolution took place in India in the late sixties and early seventies. After more than forty years of Green Revolution and revolution in agricultural machinery and equipments, complete mechanization is still a distant dream
  4. Dependence upon monsoon: Since independence, there has been a rapid expansion of irrigation infrastructure. Despite the large scale expansion, only about one third of total cropped area is irrigated today. As a consequence, two third of cropped areas is still dependent upon monsoon. Monsoon in India is uncertain and unreliable. This has become even more unreliable due to change in climate.
  5. Variety of crops: India has diversity of topography, climate and soil. Since India has both tropical and temperate climate, crops of both the climate are found in India. There are very few countries in the world that have variety comparable to that of India..
  6. Predominance of food crops: Since Indian agriculture has to feed a large population, production of food crops is the first priority of the farmers almost everywhere in the country. However, in recent years, there has been a decline in the share of land used for food crops due to various other commercially most advantageous uses of this land.
  7. Seasonal patterns: India has three distinct agricultural/cropping seasons. You might have heard about kharif, rabi and zaid. In India there are specific crops grown in these three seasons. For example rice is a kharif crop whereas wheat is a rabi crop.

 

Challenges are faced by farmers

Farmers of our country are facing lot of problems regarding agricultural production of crop. Few of them are shortlisted below:

  • Uncertain weather
  • Uneven water availability
  • Lesser yield
  • Low quality crops
  • Lack of soil nutrients
  • Buyer’s monopoly
  • Less cash in hand
  • Less scientific guidance during agricultural
  • Less information regarding selection of crop seed
  • Inadequate information of plant root moisture holding capacity
  • Less information of scientific irrigation process for maximum yield
  • Less aware of the market and growing technology

 

Different Forms of Marriage Practiced in Ancient India

by
1. Brahma Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class
2. Daiva Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee
3. Arsa A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry
4. Prajapatya Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price
5. Gandharva Love Marriage
6. Asura In which bride was bought from her father
7. Rakshasa Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors.
8. Paishacha Marriage by seduction
Daiva marriage was considered ideal while paisacha the worst.