Revolt in Nagaland

The land of the Nagas was spread over India and Myanmar after India’s Independence, with much of the original Naga hills inculcated into Manipur, Assam and Arunachal. While many decrie the internecine violence among the insurgent factions, even senior government officials such as Nagaland Chief Minister Neiphiu Rio, support the insurgents’ goal of autonomy for a greater Nagaland, incorporating Nagas from other Indian states and even in Burma. For many years, the Naga National Council (NNC) under Angami Zapu Phizo, and with Chinese and the then undivided Pakistan support, fought a bitter war for Naga independence.

Insurgents continue to maintain excessive influence in the Nagaland, running shadow governments in the areas under their control. What may have started as a political movement for Naga independence has devolved into something more akin to organized crime supported by extortion and intimidation. The local political parties’ willingness to align themselves with the insurgents and to use them for their political ends means that no effective efforts are being taken to reduce the insurgents’ grip on Nagaland. The Center Government sees Nagaland as remote and of limited economic or political significance and so is willing to let the lawlessness fester, anticipating that the profiteering will corrode the desire for Naga independence.

The Naga community consists of 17 major tribes and at least 20 sub-tribes. They inhabit primarily the present state of Nagaland, and areas in Manipur, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Burma. U.S. missionaries’ conversion of the Nagas and missionary school education weakened the exclusive clan allegiance of the sub-tribes and fostered the growth of a pan-Naga consciousness. The creation of a Nagaland state in 1963 failed to contain militancy and the Naga insurgency has resulted in 20,000 deaths in Nagaland since India’s independence.

Inhabited by 16 tribes, Nagaland has its own distinct culture and ethos. Happy and cheerful, the people have an innate sense of music and color. All the land here is basically owned by villages and individuals and this is true of many areas of the North-East and, therefore, one rarely hears of land disputes and clashes. Gateways to villages and houses are really something to see. Nagaland grows a fair amount of oranges and pineapples. The all-prevalent green continues and the scenic beauty of the state overwhelms. Christianity has had a profound influence on the region, and one sees well-maintained churches all over.

The Angamis were never ruled by chiefs; the closest equivalent is the Tevo, a descendant of the founder of the village and mediator between the community and the supernatural world. Each village is sub-divided into khel, which in the past often had independent inter-tribal policies, and who settled their own disputes by bloody fights. Relations between the sexes traditionally were conducted with great openness and equality. Few first marriages led to a permanent union, and in spite of the Christian influence divorce remains common.

Although each tribe has its own dialect, a pidgin drawn from various Naga languages, Assamese and even Nepalese, has developed into the common Nagamese tongue. As the Nagas have been integrated into the modern world, their traditions are under threat. In an effort to realign society along so-called civilized lines, boys are encouraged to live at home with their parents, and morungs are discouraged and left to fall into ruin.

Nagaland has had a troubled political history for many decades, with insurgency pre-dating statehood. The Naga insurgency is India’s longest running internal conflict. The British and waves of Kuki immigrants arrived simultaneously in the 19th century, the latter colonizing in Zemi territory and other areas in the hills and lowlands. Intense rivalry for possession of land developed.

The British administrators of Nagaland who arrived at a truce with the Nagas towards the end of the nineteenth century, agreed not to penetrate beyond certain boundaries, so their maps left numerous blank areas. Based in the Angami village of Kohima, the Deputy Commissioner occasionally toured the territories to collect taxes and administer justice and came to hold a certain authority among the various tribes. Some developed a loyalty to the British, others saw them as intruders. In 1879 loyal Kohima Angamis who helped to smuggle a message through to British lines in the Assam Valley relieved the Khonoma Angami rebellion against Kohima through assistance.

British formed the first Naga political organization called the ‘Naga Club’ in Kohima in 1918 with a view to assisting the deputy commissioner in understanding the socio-administrative problem of various tribes. In 1918 the Kuki people rebelled against the British. In 1928 the Kabui, Zemi and Lyeng members of the Kacha Naga, who had many grudges against the Kuki, planned a full-scale massacre of them, but were prevented by the British. In 1931 the Kuki aided the British in subduing the Kacha.

For some generation there had been a local prophecy that a Naga king would arise one day, drive out the British and establish rule over “all who eat from the wooden platter” (i.e., the Naga tribes). In 1929, a Zemi tribesman from Kambiron named Jadonang proclaimed himself this Messiah. His ideas combined elements of Christianity, Hinduism and Zemi priestcraft. Eventually his followers resorted to human sacrifice and he was hanged by the British. Jadonang’s chief priestess and disciple, a sixteen year old Kabui girl, survived, however, and established herself as a goddess. Amassing enormous tribute and securing allegiance of all of the Kacha Nagas, she proclaimed a Naga Kingdom in 1931 and planned a massacre of the Kuki. The Kuki aided the British in subduing the Kacha and the girl was jailed for 14 years (at direction of J.P. Mill , Naga authority who was then Deputy Commissioner at Kohima). Since that date, however, the Kacha Naga movement for Naga independence continued in various forms.

Inspired with the success of Pakistan movement a section of educated youth of Christian missionaries and support of some foreign powers expressed their reservation against amalgamation of Naga territory with Indian Union. They also started pleading that Nagas are a separate Nation. (They converted the Naga Club into a political organization known as Naga National Council (NNC) submitted a memorandum to the British Cabinet Mission on 19 June 1946, when it demanded autonomy of Naga Hills.

When the Indian flag replaced the Union flag in 1947, it was promptly removed by Nagas, who had come to accept the British presence(Crown Colony) but did not want to join India. When India became independent in 1947, the Nagas (then inhabitants of the Naga Hills in undivided Assam) were unwilling to be part of the new republic, considering themselves distinct from Indians, and launched an armed struggle for a sovereign Naga homeland. Insurgency came to the Naga Hills under the aegis of the NNC led by the legendary Angami Zapu Phizo, who raised the banner of revolt against the Indian government on August 14, 1947. What had begun as a non-violent struggle for self-determination later took the form of a violent and armed conflict in the 1950s. For decades, Naga rebel groups had been fighting for Nagalim or Greater Nagaland.

Naga insurgents received training from China and Pakistan in the 1960s and 1970s, with some insurgents trekking across Burma to reach southwest China. The Naga National Council (NNC) under Angami Zapu Phizo initially led the early revolt. Concerned over the continued violence, the Nagaland Baptist Church Council initiated peace efforts. This took concrete and positive shape during its Convention in early 1964 and the historic Peace Mission was launched the same year. The relentless endeavor of the Peace Mission actively supported by the Church resulted in an agreement for cessation of fire, on May 23, 1964, which came into effect on September 6. Several rounds of talks followed, including at the Prime Ministerial level, but the talks finally deadlocked, and the ceasefire was effectively over by 1972. The Church, however, continued with its peace efforts and formed the Nagaland Peace Council in 1972.

In 1974, a section of Naga National Council (NNC) broke away and, as the United Democratic Front, won election to the state government, then signed the Shillong Accord and laid down their arms. Three years of efforts resulted in the Shillong Accord of November 11, 1975. NNC moderates accepted the Indian Constitution following the Shillong Accord with New Delhi.

Active fighting resumed in the eighties. The rump of the NNC fought on, splitting in 1980 when Phizo’s lieutenant, Thuingaleng Muivah, Ishak Chishi Swu and SS Khaplang broke away to form the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) demanding a greater Nagaland encompassing all Naga inhabited areas in India’s northeast.

NSCN split in 1988 with one faction under Isak Chisi Swu and Thuingaleng Muivah and the other led by S. Khaplang. The NSCN (Isak-Muivah) (NSCN-IM) emerged as the more powerful of the two factions. SS Khaplang faction is still fighting but with one year ceasefire I-M group came to negotiation process with Indian government.

In 1993, Nagaland experienced recrudescent violence as two ethnic groups, the Nagas and the Kukis, engaged in brutal conflict with each other. Adding to India’s internal unrest in this region were the links established between the Bodo insurgents in Assam and the National Socialist Council of Nagaland, which, in turn, had links to other active insurgent groups and, reportedly, operatives in Thailand.

The Centre had been in talks with NSCN(IM), the largest Naga rebel group, since 1997, when the group signed a ceasefire. On 25th July 1997, the Government of India announced a cease-fire with the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isaac-Muivah) with effect from 1st August 1997—the NSCN had split into two groups in the latter part of the 1980s. On August 1, 1997, a ceasefire between the Government and the ISAC-Muivah faction of the NSCN (NSCN-IM) went into effect and has been largely observed by the Government and all insurgent groups in the state. However, factional feuds among rival Naga insurgent groups claimed an estimated 120 lives during the first 3 months of the ceasefire. The Government extended the ceasefire for another 3 months on November 1, unilaterally including even those armed groups in Nagaland which had not been party to the original ceasefire.

During the latter part of the year, the cease-fire was extended through July 31, 2000. In May 1999, underground Naga leaders Isak Chisi Swu and Thuingaleng Muivah, chairman and general secretary respectively of the NSCM-IM, visited Nagaland for the first time in 33 years. The Government asked the NSCM-IM to define the geographical boundary of “Nagalim” to enable it to extend the cease-fire zone to these areas. On August 18, the NSCM-IM killed Dally Mungro, general secretary of the Khaplang faction of the NSCN, along with two of his associates.

The ceasefire was extended in January 2000 until July 31, 2001. In April another Naga insurgent group, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Khaplang (NSCN-K) — the arch rival of NSCN (I-M) — announced a formal ceasefire. Security forces were not operating against either of the two NSCN factions and both generally were observing the ceasefire with security forces. However, in April 2001 week-long fighting between the 2 NSCN factions left over 45 persons dead, and 4,500 persons were forced to flee 15 villages in Mon district. Negotiations to widen the area of application of the ceasefire were handicapped when NSCN(I-M) leader Thuingaleng Muivah was arrested in Thailand on January 19 for travelling on a forged South Korean passport. On August 25, a joint group of Thai and Indian citizens appealed to the central Government to secure the release of the NSCN(IM) leader in the interest of Naga peace talks. He was released on bail in September 2001.

These cease-fire agreements led to the generation of optimism, hope and creation of a supportive macro environment. Government and the civil society are engaged in a purposeful conversation aimed at societal development. People of the State are desirous of permanent peace. They are willing and eager to contribute to the process of change.

 

Folk songs of Nagaland

Nagaland Music represents the rhythmically rich cultural heritage of the state. The tribes living in the remote corners of Nagaland have their inherent tradition of music. Since there are various tribal communities in Nagaland, the music of the state also expresses the melodious diversity of the same.

The themes on which the music of Nagaland is formed center around either the religious beliefs, romance or bravery. The Heliamleu which is also called by the name of dancing song of Nagaland is one of the popular music forms of the state which is based upon romanticism. Generally both the youth and the aged people create lines for this music.

The Hereileu song is known as the war song of Nagaland. This is because the aged people of Nagaland narrate their achievements in past battles through this form of music. Then there is the Neuleu song of Nagaland which expresses the legendary acts of any particular figure or a significant ancient happening in the state.

Hekialeu is another enticing part of the music of Nagaland which is of two types. The first type of Hekialeu song is composed and sung by the old people of Nagaland to glorify the deeds of their youthful days. The second type of Hekialeu song is created by both the young and old generation.

Heliamleu  

Heliamleu is a popular tribal song of Nagaland. The young people as well as the old people of the state of Nagaland involve themselves in the making of the Heliamleu song. Romantic themes are generally selected for the Heliamleu song. Ever since the tribes started living in the rural parts of Nagaland they developed an array of cultural features. Music is a prime expression of that very cultural base of Nagaland tribes. During the major festivals the tribes of Nagaland gather in a place and share the music of Heliamleu. Known as one of the oldest music forms of Nagaland music Heliamleu boasts of a rich and vibrant heritage. Sometimes the song of Heliamleu is also accompanied by musical instruments. In other cases the Heliamleu song is sung by the aged and the young with their own melodious vocal chords.

Since Heliamleu song is sung by the tribes of Nagaland from a very long time hence it has become an integral part of the cultural diversity of the state. The lines and lyrics of Heliamleu song are composed with great enthusiasm by both the younger and the older generation of Nagaland. Nagaland music has always been the center of attraction for the local tribes and sub-tribes of the state. The music in fact reflect the lifestyle, customs and beliefs of the local inhabitants of Nagaland state. It can be said that Heliamleu is the perfect manifestation of the music tradition of the Nagaland state.

Hereileu  

Hereileu is a special form of song of Nagaland state which is crated and sung mostly by the senior inhabitants of the place. Being a part of the Nagaland music Hereileu song is composed on such themes as the past deeds of the aged people of the state. The older generation of Nagaland narrate their achievements through the Hereileu song. In the ancient times the various tribes of Nagaland used to involve in wars. Hereileu song in Nagaland is basically sung by the older generation to refresh their memories about those brave battles fought in the past. This is why Hereileu is also known as war song in Nagaland state.

The way aged people once won a battle or lost it are generally included in the Hereileu song. This type of song specially glorify the bravery of the aged people of Nagaland during their youthful days. This is also done to inspire and encourage the younger generation. Nagaland has always been a vibrant platform of cultural dynamism. Music is an essential component of the culture of Nagaland. The different tribal communities of Nagaland state have their own line of music tradition.

Neuleu  

Neuleu song is a special form of Nagaland music which is formed primarily by the older generation of Nagaland state. Also called as legendary song, Neuleu is composed mainly to narrate a certain happening that took place in Nagaland many years back. The song of Neuleu also describes the achievements of a particular person who has created a mark for himself through his outstanding performance in certain fields.

Neuleu is considered as a prime manifestation of the Nagaland music. The tribal groups inhabiting the land of Nagaland from many past centuries are quite deft in the Neuleu song. The aged people who have seen the glorious past ages of Nagaland are commonly entrusted with the job of composing the Neuleu song. They, in turn, make the song of Neuleu in such a way that the performance, deeds or a particular historical event gets the prominent focus.

Hekialeu  

The song of Hekialeu has two variations. While one type of Hekialeu is sung only by the old people of Nagaland state, the other one is sung by both the old and young generation of the state. Hekialeu song of old people in Nagaland involves the description of interesting events that took place in their youthful days. Whereas the Hekialeu song composed by old and young includes various aspects of both the generation. Nagaland music is one of the most appealing cultural traits of the place. Being populated by various tribes and their sub-sections, Nagaland presents a diverse range of music forms. Hekialeu is one such type of music of Nagaland which is present in the state from many past decades.

The old people of the state of Nagaland have a store house of experience. Hekialeu song of the state is a medium through which these aged inhabitants of Nagaland share their life story with others. Also, when the young girls and boys sing the Hekialeu song during any tribal festival it rejuvenates the entire ambiance of the place. Hekialeu, in a way, symbolizes the apt synchronization of the various generations of Nagaland that have a treasure house of different types of experiences.

Freedom movement in Nagaland

The British contact with the Naga began after the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826. This treaty for the first time brought the concept of map and boundary and the tribal of the hills particularly the Naga became its victim. The demarcation of boundary placed the groups into separate regions or pails striking at their otherwise unified existence not constrained by the existence of boundaries. The net effect of this was that some Naga tribes were places within Burma and others were dispersed to different states of Northeast India. Until the advent of the British and signing of Yandabo Treaty, the notion of territorial or political authority was unknown in the hills. The different tribes had been living in freedom without any geographical boundary or restriction since ages. After annexing Assam, the British began to consider the Naga areas to be part of the colonial interest. But they followed a policy of cautious non-interference towards the hill tribes; especially the Naga because they considered annexing the tribal hills was not profitable to them.

However, the situation began to change when the Naga first major encounter with the British took place. In January 1832 when Captain Jenkins who with his 700 army of men and 800 coolies marched tlirough the Naga territory on their way to Assam from Manipur had to face a fierce Naga attacks and unfamiliar terrain. As Iralu puts it, the Naga attacked any one who trespasses their areas. To stop this raids many expeditions were carried out by the British in the Naga Hills between 1831 and 1851 with heavy losses. The British had to pass through the Naga Hills on their way to Assam but the Nagas often caused trouble by way of sudden attacks to the British. These attacks greatly harmed their interest so it became imperative for the British to capture Naga territories without much ambition of occupation as they knew the Naga were famous as a wanior tribe and the British were wary of this fact.

The policy of the British towards the Naga hills becomes evident from the position taken by Lord Dalhousie, the then Governor General of India “I dissent entirely from the policy which is recommended of what is called obtaining control, that is to say, of taking possession of these hills, and establishing sovereignty over their savage inhabitants. Our possession could bring no profit to us, and would be as costly to us as it would be unproductive. As it is impossible to contemplate the permanent possession of these hills, so it seems impolitic to sanction temporary possession of them. This policy was followed till around 1862. But when Cecil Beadon took over as the Lieutenant Governor the British began to bring some of the Naga villages under their political control particularly the ones that constituted direct threat to them. In November 14, 1878 the British occupied Kohima despite the fierce resistance put up by the Angami tribe which lasted for eleven days. This was followed by speedy consolidation of British rule in the Naga Hills. However it must be noted here that the British occupation of the Naga Hills was confined only to the areas which were contagious to British settlement of Assam, particularly in the borders of Nowgong and Sibsagar districts. This was mainly to protect its subjects from the Naga raids; otherwise the British had no real intention or interest to conquer the Naga Hills. So their occupation was mostly confined to the area covering present day central Nagaland. The British had their Administrative centre in Kohima, Mokokchung and Wokha. The Naga of these areas for the first time had to accept an alien power over their territory as they could no longer resist the strong, superior and well-equipped British army. There were many other Naga tribes over whom the British never exercised any kind of administrative control. Most of the areas bordering Myanmar and Tibet were left out by the British because they knew it was futile and useless for them.

Rani Gaidinliu

Rani Gaidinliu is a legendary freedom fighter of whom India is really proud of. An Indian historian writes, “Any nation or country would be proud to have such a gifted woman who sacrificed everything for her people and for the cause she believed was good and true. She became a living legend in her own lifetime”. Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee described Haipou Jadonang as a Martyr and Rani Gaidinliu as a freedom fighter of India.

Rani Gaidinliu was born on 26th January 1915 in a Rongmei village of Nungkao in the mountain range of Kala Naga between the Barak and Makru rivers in Tamenglong district of former princely state of Manipur. Her father name was Lothonang and her mother was Karotlienliu. She belongs to the influential Pamei clan of the village. Her father was not the chief of the village but young Gaidinliu was a pampered child of the whole clan. Gaidinliu literally means, ‘a girl who is a harbinger of good news’. From her childhood Gaidinliu showed her extraordinary qualities and talents. She grew up as a little mystic. She was always independent, determined and courageous in whatever she did. She dominated over her elder sisters. She was always a leader of girls of her dormitory. According to her supporters, her life took a new turn when she met a kindly deity who looked exactly like her in the forest near her village. Later on she learnt that the goddess was the daughter of God Bisnu of the Zeliangrong pantheon of gods and goddesses. They established a lifelong friendship. Gaidinliu’s parents thought that their daughter would become a Shaman priestess. Later on the Political Agent of Manipur Mr. J.C. Higgins described her as a Maibi, a medicine woman; but Gaidinliu was much more than a Maibi as Jadonang was much more than a Maiba, a medicine man. Gaidinliu came to know of Jadonang through dreams and she visited Kambiron to meet her future master. Since 1926-1927 the relationship between the master and disciple developed between Jadonang and Gaidinliu. Jadonang noted the god given talent of young girl and she also volunteered to join his movement. Ultimately she became the most trusted lieutenant of Jadonang.

Tingkao Ragwang or Tingwang, the Supreme God. Gaidinliu participated in the acts of reformation of the Zeliangrong religion, abolition of taboos and gennas, organisation of religious congregations, performance of dances and singing of songs and hymns as carried out by her master Haipou Jadonang. Young Gaidinliu was opposed to the oppressive rule of the British particularly the forced labour imposed on the poor villagers. She came into contact with large number of people through her association with Haipou Jadonang mostly in their religious reforms movement. During the last joint pilgrimage to the holy cave of Lord Bisnu, young Gaidinliu came to know of her future and her struggle. A new religion was revealed to Haipou Jadonang and Gaidinliu enjoined upon to follow the reform religion. She learnt about the impending death of Jadonang. When Jadonang was arrested by Assam Police in Lakhipur, she escaped into the hills.

After arrest of Jadonang by Mr. C. Gimson, Deputy Commissioner of Cachar in Assam, Jadonang was handed over to Mr. J.C. Higgins, the Political Agent of Manipur. The Government decided to make a demonstration march of Assam Rifles Column from Jirighat to Nungkao to Tamenglong and to Imphal. During this march on 13 March 1931, young Gaidinliu came to the notice of Political Agent J.C. Higgins, SDO S.J. Duncan and Major Bulfield of 4th Assam Rifles. The seventeen year old Gaidinliu escaped into the Zeilad lake forest area. She was accompanied by 40 youth including girls. She went into hiding waiting for the outcome of the trial of Jadonang at Imphal. She knew the truth and always insisted that Jadonang was innocent of murder and not present at the occurrence of the crime. After the trial and unfortunate execution of Jadonang on 29th August 1931, Gaidinliu took up the cudgel to organise the people. A historian writes, “The real revolt occurred after the martyrdom of Jadonang. Gaidinliu, the charismatic, spiritual and political successor of Jadonang was the leader of the rebellion. The revolt was a violent protest against the British Imperialism and a logical consequence of the ideology and strategy of Jadonang, which would have taken shape but for the sudden, short and unexpected British clampdown on the protagonist of the Naga Raj. The arrest, trial and execution of Jadonang stunned his followers with fear and anxiety. His village, his own villagers disowned him. Jadonang’s role was the preparatory phase and real action came during the phase of Gaidinliu, his brilliant and determined disciple. Success or failure she did not care. Fight she must; she was determined to put the master’s ideology to practice”.

 

Peasants and tribal movements in Nagaland

Nagas Rebellion 

Nagas were once head hunters, as they used to cut off the heads of the enemies and preserve them as trophies. But with the advent of Christianity and education, the Nagas, comprising more than 30 tribes, have evolved a rich culture and tradition. The Naga national movement is the consequence of the intermingling of ethnicity, geography, history and most significantly the indomitable spirit of the Nagas who belong to Mongoloid race under Tibeto-Burman category. They have customs and traditions which are very different from those of the plains people. One of the theoretical paradigms of how an ethnic group becomes a nation is when that group faces a common enemy. This may be said to be true in the case of the Nagas as the emergence of their national movement and simultaneously that of their nation have their moorings in their interaction and contact with the outside world, which is riven with unpleasant exchanges. Oral tradition indicates that the Nagas fought battles with the people of other plains. In order to protect their indigenous culture, they demanded independent homeland for the Nagas.

Zeliangrong movement

The Zeliangrong people are one of the major indigenous communities living in the tri-junction of the present states of Assam, Manipur and Nagaland in North East India. The Zeliangrongs are the descendants of the same ancestor who founded the great Makuilongdi village, the ‘cradle of Zeliangrong culture’. They have a long history and inherited a rich cultural heritage. They have great love and strong attachment to their ancestral homeland and traversed a long period of history from their ancient days at Makhel, Ramtingkabin, Chawangphuning and Makuilongdi to the present times.

As time passed by the population upsurge and the number of household at Makuilongdi reached up to the extent of 7777 (seven thousands seven hundred and seventy-seven). The dormitory for young boys and girls increased in several numbers because they could not accommodate only in one or two. For many generations they lived together in peace and harmony in Makuilongdi area. However, exodus took place due to various reasons and people began to move out in batches to different directions exploring suitable land for cultivation and settlement.

During the course of their exploration in the virgin lands the Zeliangrong settlements spread in different ranges and extended up to the border areas of Assam Valley in the west and to the confines of Lushai Hills in the southern areas. Some sections of the Zeliangrong who were not willing to join the exodus stayed back and still today many Zeliangrong settlements including Makuilongdi are found in Senapati district of the present State of Manipur. Since their exploration and settlements they had been living without any external interferences. However, in due course of time they faced aggressions from other neighbours like the Meiteis and Cacharis and yet they had always defended and protected their territory, their way of life, their religion and culture.

Meanwhile, the British colonial power also started penetrating into the Zeliangrong inhabited areas by the first half of the 19th century. By this time the hordes of Kuki migrants had also started coming into southern Zeliangrong areas which caused lots of conflicts and bloodshed. The Meitei rulers in collaboration with the British authorities started using the Kukis as buffer tribes and planted them deep into Naga areas. Consequently, a large portion of Zeliangrong traditional territories in the southern areas were lost out to the Kukis. The presence of outsiders disrupted the peaceful existence of the indigenous settlers and prompted social tension between different communities.

Moreover, in the second half of the 19th century, the British colonial power divided the Zeliangrong people and their land and placed them under Assam and Manipur for their administrative conveniences without the consent of Zeliangrong people. Later, Independent India continues the old policy of the colonial power by further dividing the Zeliangrong people and put some of them under Nagaland. These actions of the colonial power and Government of India have made the Zeliangrong people peripheral appendages to these three political entities – Assam, Manipur and Nagaland. However, the present compact and contiguous geographical settings occupied by the Zeliangrong people is approximately 12,581(twelve thousand five hundred eighty-one) sq. km. with a total population of about 450000 (four lakhs fifty thousand) according to 2011 census.

When Haipou Jadonang grew up he witnessed all these upheavals, exploitations and deplorable conditions of his people. He was also told of the suppression and mayhem inflicted on his people by other neighboring communities. Taking cognizance of all these pathetic conditions he started thinking of getting justice for his people. It is also pertinent to mention that the Zeliangrongs’ assertion to defend their democratic village-republics, land and people from the aggressions of the neighboring communities and the British was already there even before Haipou Jadonang came into the picture.

Haipou Jadonang raised the famous slogan, ‘Makaammei rui Gwangtupuni’ meaning, the kingdom of Nagas shall reign. He raised this slogan in the backdrop of the British occupation of the Naga country. He started mobilizing the Zeliangrong Nagas to unite so that the oppressive colonial regime could be put to an end. Haipou Jadonang prophesized to the Naga people that the British regime will come to an end soon and that the Naga people will rule over their own country. He campaigned against house tax, other exploitative systems imposed by the British and was also deadly against the interference to the socio-religious and cultural lives of the Naga people.

Haipou Jadonang used the socio-religious platform to motivate the Zeliangrong Nagas to come out and fight against the mighty British Empire. Haipou Jadonang once said that the Meiteis and the Indians have their own kings and he opined that Makaam people should also have their own king. He further said that the whitemen and Makaam people are all human beings and we should not be afraid of them. According to him all men are equal and the Makaam people are also blessed community. The days for Makaam people have come and with the grace of God the Makaam people can become kings.The implicit meaning of Jadonang’s slogan is that no other people should rule over the Makaam people but they will rule over themselves.

Languages and literature of Nagaland

Languages

Nagamese  

Nagamese is the most popular among the spoken languages in Nagaland. Widely spoken by the tribal people of the state, the Nagamese language of Nagaland is a mixture of different Naga and the Assamese languages. It has also been enriched with some contributions from Bengali and Hindi languages. It is the Lingua-Franca of the Naga population.

Nagaland’s Nagamese has gained its popularity due to simplicity of the language. Since the language does not have any written scripts, it does not follow any grammatical complications. Nagamese has no use of gender classifications, which makes it more easy. Nagamese is popular as the language of communication. Although there are many languages in the Nagaland, the Nagamese act as the interlink between these languages and helps in better communication.

Ao  

One of the important languages in Nagaland, Ao is spoken by a large number of people in the state. The Ao or Ao-Naga language falls in the Tibetan – Burmese group of languages. Some regional dialects like the Mongsen, Chungli, Chanki etc. are prominent among the Ao-Naga language family. Among all the dialects, Chungli is the most widely spoken one and efforts are on to make it the standard Ao-Naga language. The inhabitants of the Mokokchung District mainly converse in this language. It is also quite popular in Southern part of the state of Assam. Ao-Naga has written script that maintains its own codes of grammar. Three types of tones constitute the Ao language of Nagaland – the falling tone, the rising tone and the level tone. Wide use of the Copula is a notable characteristic of the language.

 

 

Tenyidie  

Tenyidie is one of the common languages in Nagaland. The Tenyidie language of Nagaland is also known as the Angami. Mostly spoken by the natives of the Angami tribes, Tenyidie have a number of dialects like:

• Dzuna
• Kohima
• Kehena
• Chakroma

Litreture of Nagaland

British period

This period covers until the departure of the British from India. During this time not much is known about written literature although there was a rich Naga oral history. What is known are some of the publications by people like E W Clark and other Christian Missionaries. Some anthropological writings by Johnstone, Mackenzie etc. are mentioned. Second, there were, naturally, official documents of communication between British officers and their Government in the UK. Some of these would become important documents for the Naga people. Third, surprisingly, there was a budding sense of literary consciousness when three early educated Nagas from Kohima Village (Zhapuzhülie, Khiezhie and Lhoulienyü) translated John Bunyan’s English classic, “Pilgrim’s Progress” into Angami language during this period.

Post British period to early 1970s 

From during the British period there were a number of people — officials, missionaries, and some anthropologists — who were on the scene and whose writings we now read. Some came soon after departure of the British. However, their writings were largely published much later. Most of the “travelogues” by British officials and anthropologists were also published in the 1960s. An easy example is Verrier Elwin’s “Nagas in the Nineteenth Century” by Oxford University Press which came out in 1969. This was also a period of drought by Naga authors. Interestingly, a Naga author, Mr Tajenyuba Ao, made an appearance with his “A History of Anglo-Naga Affairs” in 1958. This was an exception as was the earlier translation of Pilgrim’s Progress mentioned above.

1970s to turn of century

With formation of Nagaland Statehood, livelihood security of the Government servants and spread of education, some writings started appearing, including by those who were serving employees of the government. What was more, newspapers also started appearing – beginning with tabloid weekly newspapers which could be said to be the first publishing houses in Nagaland. Four tabloid newspapers – namely, Citizen’s Voice, Nagaland Times, Ura mail and Platform news* – were published during this period. By the 1980s and 1990s more and more books started appearing as more people attained higher education.

New Millennium

By the turn of the century, the dawn of writing in Nagaland truly began. There is still more poetry than book writing and more non-fiction than imaginative writing. But, at least, one could say the direction now appears more secure than before. What is of great significance is that Naga business publishing houses have now come up to encourage Naga authors. There are also now many others from the mainland as well as from international publishers interested and willing to promote Naga authors although there is still much reluctance among some to publish what Nagas might think is their right to express their feelings, particularly in the area that falls under “politics”. But the road ahead is much brighter today.

Art forms of Nagaland

The rich arts and crafts of Nagaland portray the artistic caliber and creative imagination of the local craftsmen of the north eastern state of India. Nagaland has several small scale cottage and medium scale industries that produce fine products of the traditional art of the state.

The art of weaving is primarily the domain of the female folk of Nagaland. The weaving industry is one of the important industries of Nagaland that has added to the financial strength of the north eastern state of India. The women of Nagaland design beautiful patterns on pieces of cloth to make them colorful and attractive. The excellent design patterns on the Angami Naga shawls bears relic to the unique artistic skills of the artists who have inherited the art from their forefathers. The men folk of Nagaland produce excellent pieces of wooden work. The artists carve exquisite designs on the wooden pieces. One of the traditional arts of Nagaland, the wood carving industry produces beautiful products that have an internationally acclaimed status.

The local indigenous inhabitants of Nagaland master in the art of making baskets which are decorative and functional as well. The baskets of different sizes and shapes are used for variety of purposes. The traditional ornaments of Nagaland reflect the rich cultural heritage of the place. The native population of Nagaland love to wear heavy jewelries on days of special festive occasions. The local citizens of Nagaland draw beautiful pictures of animals and birds on the walls of their houses to make them look attractive. Nagaland is famous for producing several beautiful items of bamboo and cane work.

Weaving  

The unique weaving of Nagaland reflects the rich artistic skills and creative imagination of the local craftsmen who have inherited the art from their forefathers. An integral part of the arts and crafts of Nagaland, the weaving industry has helped to strengthen the economic base of the state. The weaving industries of Nagaland predominantly employ female weavers. Weaving industry is one of the traditional industries of Nagaland. According to the social customs of the ancient times, the wife of a particular man who had gone for hunting was not allowed to weave. However, with the passage of times, such social customs related to weaving have been relaxed and women can freely engage in the industry to earn their livelihood.

The state government of Nagaland has taken several steps to improve the condition of the small scale and medium scale cottage industries. Equipped with all the modern machineries, the weaving industries of Nagaland in the modern era produce world class products that have an internationally acclaimed status. The government of Nagaland has established training institutes in the districts of Dimapur and Mokokchung that imparts professional courses on weaving. More and more citizens of Nagaland are encouraged to take up the traditional profession of weaving to help in the balanced development of agricultural productivity and industrial sectors of the state.

Wood Carvings  

The Nagaland wood carvings are known for their elegant designs and excellent quality. Nagaland earns huge revenues from the wood carving industry of the state. An integral part of arts and crafts of Nagaland, the beautifully designed wooden works portrays the rich artistic caliber and imaginative skills of the local craftsmen. The tribes of Wanchos, Phom and Konyaks are known for their splendid mastery over the traditional art of carving beautiful products from woods which they have inherited from their forefathers. The excellent pieces of wooden work have internationally acclaimed status. Most of the tourists who visit Nagaland make it a point to purchase the pieces of traditional art as relics of the unique cultural heritage and artistic creativity of the place. The wooden pieces of art work of Nagaland are primarily used for decorative purposes.

Paintings  

Cloth painting is a very popular form of painting of Nagaland. The natives belonging to the Lotha, Ao and Rengma tribal communities practice this highly skilled art of painting on clothes. The Ao art of painting is quite similar to that of the Rengmas even though the basic pattern is quite different. The famous warrior shawl of the Ao tribe is painted in white. Only a warrior who has headed a war or performed some feats of merit is allowed to wear this shawl.

On the white median band, figures of various animals like elephant, cock, mithun, tiger, cock and even Dao spear and human heads are painted with black color. The colors used in these painting are natural colors that are prepared by mixing the sap of a tree, with very strong beer and the ash of the leaves. Fine chiseled bamboo sticks are used in the form of brushes. Sometimes, instead of the ash of Tangko leaves the ash of bamboo leaves are used. This results in the formation of a gray fluid. The old men of the tribes who have perfected this art over the years work on the intricate paintings. They paint the motifs in free hand on the lines of thread. The Rengmas also use the same medium of painting.

Pottery  

The pottery of Nagaland is one of the celebrated crafts in Nagaland. The pottery at Nagaland is a craft that is restricted to the women. It would not be wrong to say that pottery in Nagaland is a part of the Naga household. The pottery of Nagaland is a unique form of craft. Unlike the other parts of India, pottery at Nagaland does not involve revolving the wheel. In Nagaland, pottery is made exclusively with the help of hands: revolving the wheel for making the vessels is completely non existent in Nagaland.

The pottery in Nagaland are simple. The earthenwares made in Nagaland have functional value. The Nagas pay more importance to utility rather than aesthetics. Therefore, the pottery of Nagaland do not intricate detailing and designs. The Tseminyu and Ungma villages of Nagaland are famous for their pottery. Besides, it is noteworthy that the turnover of the craft is not much, as it is done only by women. Menfolk in Nagaland are exempted from making earthenwares. The Arts and Crafts of Nagaland are a hallmark of the consummate skill, expertise, talent and creativity of the tribal craftsmen.

 

Handicrafts of Nagaland

It is well known that Nagas are the living examples of skilled labours and craftsman and their handiworks are famous worldwide. Although we have come across several centuries since humans have learnt to make clothes, learnt pottery, do farming etc. But the people in Nagaland, mainly the tribes still make their things by their own. They use indigenous and natural recyclable products to manufacture items which are also durable in nature because these are abundant in the environment they live in. In this way they produce materials without polluting the nature and the human health. Naga tribes are so self-sufficient that they can make everything of their daily use by themselves, starting from clothes to their bed. They pass on their skills from one generation to another; even the women participate equally in producing the materials. If you visit the villages in Nagaland, you’ll find small girls playing with small weaving toys, in this way they get trained in these skills from their tender age which helps them in their future.

By now you know how Nagas make shawls and ornaments of their own, here we’ll discuss about how they make things out of canes and bamboos, woods, clay etc. The things produced looks very beautiful and get admiration even from the other countries across the world. Since everything is produced from the cottage industries, the things are quite expensive. As the work details are quite subtle and intense so the price really does not matter at all to the tourists visiting the place. If you want to buy these things, you ought to visit this place and buy these directly from the place where they are manufactured. These cane-craft materials can be used to decorate your home; however some of the materials among them are used by the Nagas in daily purpose.

Cane-Crafting

Cane is a material which they use to make many things like sofa, chairs, baskets, and storage materials because it is soft and easy to handle. The baskets and storage materials are made by weaving canes which looks very sophisticated and the maze-like weaving done is really very tedious process. Some of the baskets made are not dyed while some baskets are made with canes dyed in different colours. The storage materials and baskets are made in various shapes and sizes and are apt for daily uses.

Wood-crafting

Wood carvings by Naga tribes are wonderful, works like these are rarely found these days. They use simple tools to make fine carvings on the wooden materials and make vases, bowls and cups. Wood crafting once was a very important source of income of the Naga people, so it is natural that they are very good in this area. These wooden crafts can be used for decoration purpose; a wooden vase in our home can bring an ethnic touch.

Weaving

We have already said about how the famous Naga shawls are weaved and it is a very important skill among all the Naga tribes. Apart from the shawls, they also weave to make handbags and jackets. For this purpose, the popular loin loom was used by the weavers, a technique in which the Naga tribes excel. As the time has passed, the fly shuttle loom however has become very popular among the weavers. The decorations or the patterns used for making the bags and the other things from one tribe to another; however each tribe draw cues from their own traditions. Earlier natural dyes were used which has been replaced by the artificial colours. Cowrie shells and beads were used to describe the economical status of the person who carried the bags, now these are added to the handlooms for the purpose of decoration only.

Naga tribes have immense capability and skills which should be nurtured so that it does not disperse with time. The government of the country must take steps to motivate such intelligent people and bring their capabilities into the limelight.

Embroidery  

The beautiful embroidery of Nagaland portrays the rich artistic caliber of the local craftsmen of the north eastern state of India. The local indigenous population of Nagaland design unique patterns on their shawls, clothes and other decorative items made up of cloth which reflects their cultural heritage. The splendid embroidery of the Angami Naga shawls of Nagaland has an internationally acclaimed status. Most of the tourists who visit the north eastern state prefer to buy the beautiful shawls as relic of the rich artistic creativity of the native population of Nagaland. Designed with colorful threads or wools, the Angami Naga shawls reflect the old glory and grandeur of the state of Nagaland.

 

 

Fairs and festivals of Nagaland

Sekrenyi Festival

The Sekrenyi Festival starts with the “kizie’ ritual and on the first day the men go for a bath to the village well. Two young tribals then clean the well at night and it is guarded to prevent anyone from using it after it is cleaned. The early mornings again, the men take a bath ceremoniously . The Thekra Hie is the best part of the festival when the young men and women of the tribe sit together, singing traditional tribal songs. There are jugs of rice beer as well as plates of meat kept in front of the participants. The men go for hunting on the seventh day of the Sekrenyi Festival. The most significant part of the festival is on the eight day when there is bridge pulling or gate pulling and there are inter village visits. It is only when the festival ends that people resume their work on the fields.

Amongmong festival

Amongmong festival is a pre-Harvest festival of the Sangam tribe who are the residents of Nagaland with the prime aim of the promotion of togetherness. This 6-day festival celebrated with extremely fervor and enthusiasm by the people where they also worship their local deities. The people of the tribes place 3 cuisine stones close to the fireplace so that they can accomplish the tribe’s health, good harvest and prosperity.

The priest of the village makes an announcement in the night and then next morning reads-out the declaration about the festival. The villagers make arrangements for food, special wines (Rohi and Madhu) and firewood are arranged by the villagers. Then the priest goes on with his announcement to break up the spirit of dead from the living ones of the tribes. This festival is celebrated to get a good harvest, which is the special significance. Singkitshaa is the first day of Amongmong.

Hornbill Festival

The eagerly awaited Hornbill Festival, is one of the most cherished festivals of Nagaland, India’s Far North Eastern state and celebrated by locals with much enthusiasm and zeal. The festival is named after Hornbill, one of the most venerated bird species in the state whose importance is reflected in a number of tribal cultural expressions, songs and dances. Almost 85% of Nagaland’s population still depends upon agriculture, so most of their festivals revolve around agriculture which they consider sacred. The Hornbill Festival is one of the largest celebrations of the indigenous warrior tribes of Nagaland.

Naga people have a rich tradition of maintaining their unique heritage and customs. In spite of the tremendous modernity entering into their lives, the people have preserved their customs and legacy and have kept the torch of their tribal identity lighted. Nagaland is called the land of festivals and people in the state have a fondness of celebrating the deeds of their ancient warriors and folk heroes as well as songs that immortalize love stories, folk tunes and gospel songs.

Each of the tribes and subtribes in the state have their own way of cultivating their individual culture. In addition to their traditional ceremonial attires which is different for each tribe, there are multi-colored spears, doas with dyed goat’s hair, exotic headgears and ivory armlets. In earlier times, the fighters had to prove their bravery, in order to wear these. The Hornbill Festival is one the largest celebration in Nagaland and there is huge gathering and much merrymaking in the form of drinking, eating, singing and dancing.

Tuluni Festival

The most significant festival celebrated by the Sumi Naga tribe of Nagaland is the Tuluni Festival. This festival is celebrated to rejoice the most abundant and fruitful season of the year in Nagaland. The Sumi tribe in Nagaland celebrates the Tuluni Festival with splendor and grandeur. During the Tuluni Festival there are prayers and offerings that are given to Litsaba, who is the deity of fruitfulness who gives life and protection to the crops.

During the Tuluni Festival in Nagaland , a goblet is made with the leaf of plantain , to serve the rice beer. Tuluni is the name of this wine that is consumed by the Sumi tribe. “anni’ is another name for ‘Tuluni’ meaning the season of plenteous crops. To make the celebrations much more joyous, it is during the Tuluni festival that the fiancé is invited over to the finacee’s place and the young couples exchange gifts. Engaged couples get married and start their new lives and all are fed lavishly with meat and other delicious food. There are folk songs and ballads that are sung to keep the spirit of the festival high.

Yemshe Festival

The Yemshe Festival in Nagaland is celebrated by the Pochuri tribe. Being one of their most important festivals, the Pochuri Tribe wait anxiously all year round for this time when they come together and celebrate the Yemshe Festival with fun and frolic. It is with grand celebrations and ceremony that the Yemshe Festival is held and all members of the tribe, the young and the old come together with the hope of a good harvest after a year of hard work.

The village spokesman announces the date for the Yemshe festival after which the arrangements and festivities begin. The whole village is cleaned by the village youth, starting from the streets, footpaths to the wells and the fields. The head of the family perform the rituals of the Yemshe Festival whose materials are then fastened to the entrance of each house. It is also the time for fun and merry making as engaged couples exchange gifts and indulge in feasts and wine. This is called the Big Yemshe when people get to know each other and also get engaged. The celebration of the Yemshe with rituals is called the small Yemshe, when a rich family hosts the ritual Purification feast. The feast continues and there are a number of rituals and specific arrangements that are made till the last day of the feast which is the feast cleansing day. All people stay indoors the last day of the feast following which arrangements start for the next harvesting time.

Nazu Festival

One of the most enjoyable and colorful festivals of Nagaland, celebrated by the Pochury Tribe there is the Nazu Festival. The time for celebrating the Nazu Festival is just before the annual sowing of seeds take place. The whole outlook of the festival is les of rituals and more of pure entertainment and competition. There are dances and music performed by the tribal folks.

There is a lot of dazzle and shine associated with the Nazu Festival in Nagaland. Melodious tribal songs and entertaining dances keep spirits high during the 10 days of the Nazu Festival. The most well known of the dances performed is the Khupielilie dance of the tribes. This dance is popular because of the tuneful and harmonious movements of the hands and legs of al the dancers, that presents a beautiful and amusing sight.

Feudatory states of Nagaland

The ancient history of the Nagas is unclear. Tribes migrated at different times, each settling in the northeastern part of present India and establishing their respective sovereign mountain terrains and village-states. There are no records of whether they came from the northern Mongolian region, southeast Asia or southwest China, except that their origins are from the east of India and that historical records show the present-day Naga people settled before the arrival of the Ahoms in 1228 AD.

Before the arrival of European colonialism in South Asia, there had been many wars, persecution and raids from Burma on Naga tribes,(meitei people) and others in India’s northeast. The invaders came for “head hunting” and to seek wealth and captives from these tribes and ethnic groups. When the British inquired Burmese guides about the people living in the northern Himalayas, they were told ‘Naka’. This was recorded as ‘Naga’ and has been in use thereafter.

With the arrival of the British East India Company in the early 19th century, followed by the British Raj, Britain expanded its domain over the whole of South Asia, including the Naga Hills. The first Europeans to enter the hills were Captains Jenkins and Pemberton in 1832. The early contact with the Naga tribes were characterised by suspicion and conflict. The colonial interests in Assam, such as tea estates and other trading posts suffered from raids from tribes who were known for their bravery and “head hunting” practices. To put an end to these raids, the British troops recorded 10 military expeditions between 1839 and 1850. In February 1851, at the bloody battle at Kikrüma, people died on the British and the Kikrüma Naga tribe side; in days after the battle, intertribal warfare followed that led to more bloodshed. After that war, the British adopted a policy of respect and non-interference with Naga tribes.

Despite this, between 1851 and 1865, Naga tribes continued to raid the British in Assam. The British India Government, fresh from the shocks of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, reviewed its governance structure throughout South Asia including its northeastern region. In 1866, the British India administration established a post at Samaguting with the explicit goal of ending intertribal warfare and tribal raids on property and personnel. In 1869, Captain Butler was appointed to lead and consolidate the British presence in the Nagaland Hills. In 1878, the headquarters were transferred to Kohima — creating a city that remains an important centre of administration, commerce and culture for Nagaland.

On 4 October 1879, G.H. Damant (M.A.C.S), a British political agent, went to Khonoma with troops, where he was shot dead with 35 of his team. Kohima was subsequently attacked and the stockade looted. This violence led to a determined effort by the British Raj to return and respond. The subsequent defeat of Khonoma marked the end of serious and persistent hostility in the Naga Hills.

Between 1880 and 1922, the British administration consolidated their position over a large area of the Naga Hills and integrated it into its Assam operations. The British administration enforced the rupee as the currency for economic activity and a system of structured tribal government that was very different than historic social governance practices. These developments triggered profound social changes among the Naga people.

In 1944 during World War II, the Indian National Army with the help of Japanese Army, led by Netaji Subhashchandra Bose, invaded through Burma and attempted to take India through Kohima. The population was evacuated. British India soldiers defended the area of Kohima and having lost many of their original force were relieved by British in June 1944. Together the British and Indian troops successfully repelled the Japanese troops.The battle was fought from 4 April to 22 June 1944 from the town of Kohima, coordinated with action at Imphal, Manipur.The Indian National Army lost half their numbers, many through starvation, and were forced to withdraw through Burma.

There is the World War II Cemetery, and the War Museum, in honour of those who lost their lives during World War II during the fighting between British Empire and Japanese troops. Nearly 4,000 British Empire troops lost their lives, along with 3,000 Japanese. Many of those who lost their lives were Naga people, particularly of Angami tribe. Near the memorial is the Kohima Cathedral, on Aradura hill, built with funds from the families and friends of deceased Japanese soldiers. Prayers are held in Kohima for peace and in memory of the fallen of both sides of the battle.