Administrative Organization of the British

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Army

Army fulfilled four important functions:

  1. Instrument to conquer Indian powers
  2. Defended the British Empire in India against foreign rivals
  3. Safe-guarded against internal revolt
  4. Chief instrument for extending and defending the British Empire in Asia and Africa.

Bulk of the army consisted of Indians. In 1857, of the total strength of 311400, about 265900 were Indians. Highest Indian rank was that of Subedar.

British could conquer and control India through a predominantly Indian army because:

  1. There was absence of modern nationalism at that time
  2. The company paid its soldiers regularly and well, as opposed to the Indian rulers and chieftains.

Police

Cornwallis was responsible for the creation of a modern police system in India. He established a system of Thanas (or circles) headed by a daroga. The police:

  1. Prevented organization of a large-scale conspiracy against foreign control
  2. Was used to suppress the national movement.

Judiciary

Though started by Hastings, the system was stabilized by Cornwallis.

Civil Cases

District: Diwani Adalat (civil court) presided over by the District Judge

Provincial Court: Appeal from civil court

Sardar Diwani Adalat: Highest appeal

There were also, below the District Court, Registrar’s Court (headed by Europeans) and subordinate courts headed by Indians known as munsifs or amins.

Criminal Cases

4 divisions of Bengal presidency. Each had a Court of Circuit presided over by the civil servants. Appeals could be made to Sardar Nizamat Adalat.

William Bentinck:

  • Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit
  • Their work was assigned to District Collectors
  • Raised the status and power of Indians in the Judicial service.

In 1865, High Courts were established at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

British brought about  uniformity in the system of law. In 1833, the government appointed Law Commission headed by Macaulay to codify Indian Laws. This eventually resulted in the Indian Penal Code, Code of Civil and Criminal Procedures and other codes of laws.

 

India in the Eighteenth Century

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Bahadur Shah 1 (1707-12)

  • Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latter’s death in 1707
  • He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah.
  • Though he was quite old (65) and his rule quite short there are many significant achievements he made
  • He reversed the narrow minded and antagonistic policies of Aurungzeb
  • Made agreements with Rajput states
  • Granted sardeshmukhi to Marathas but  not Chauth
  • Released Shahuji (son of Sambhaji) from prison (who later fought with Tarabai)
  • Tried to make peace with Guru Gobind Sahib by giving him a high Mansab. After Guru’s death, Sikhs again revolted under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. This led to a prolonged war with the Sikhs.
  • Made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief.
  • State finances deteriorated

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

  • Death of Bahadur Shah plunged the empire into a civil war
  • A noted feature of this time was the prominence of the nobles
  • Jahandar Shah, son of Bahadur Shah, ascended the throne in 1712 with help from Zulfikar Khan
  • Was a weak ruler devoted only to pleasures
  • Zulfikar Khan, his wazir, was virtually the head of the administration
  • ZK abolished jizyah
  • Peace with Rajputs: Jai Singh of Amber was made the Governor of Malwa. Ajit Singh of Marwar was made the Governor of Gujarat.
  • Chauth and Sardeshmukh granted to Marathas. However, Mughals were to collect it and then hand it over to the Marathas.
  • Continued the policy of suppression towards Banda Bahadur and Sikhs
  • Ijarah: (revenue farming) the government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants
  • Jahandhar Shah defeated in January 1713 by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

  • Owed his victory to Saiyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdullah Khan
  • Abdullah Khan: Wazir,                    Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi
  • FS was an incapable ruler. Saiyid brothers were the real rulers.
  • Saiyid Brothers
    • Known the Indian History as King Makers
    •  adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished jizyah (again?). Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places
    • Marathas: Granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan
    • They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry, quarrels and conspiracies at the court.
    • Nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them
    • In 1719, the Saiyid Brothers killed and overthrew FS.
    • This was followed by placing, in quick succession, of two young princes who died of consumption
    • Murder of the emperor created a wave of revulsion against the SB. They were looked down as ‘namak haram’
  • Now, they placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India
  • In 1720, the nobles assassinated Hussain Ali Khan, the younger of the SB. Abdullah Khan was also defeated at Agra

Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’ (1719-1748)

  • Weak-minded, frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease
  • Neglected the affairs of the state
  • Intrigued against his own ministers
  • Naizam ul Mulk Qin Qulich Khan, the wazir, relinquished his office and founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724
    • “His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire”
  • Heriditary nawabs arose in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Punjab
  • Marathas conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand
  • 1738: Invasion of Nadir Shah

 

Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738)

  • Attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt
  • Also, the Mughal empire was weak.
  • Didn’t meet any resistance as the defense of the north-west frontier had been neglected for years
  • The two armies met at Karnal on 13th Feb 1739. Mughal army was summarily defeated. MS taken prisoner
  • Massacre in Delhi in response to the killing of some of his soldiers
  • Plunder of about 70 crore rupees. Carried away the Peacock throne and Koh-i-noor
  • MS ceded to him all the provinces of the Empire west of the river Indus
  • Significance: Nadir Shah’s invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies

Ahmed Shah Abdali

  • One of the generals of Nadir Shah
  • Repeatedly invaded and plundered India right down to Delhi and Mathura between 1748 and 1761. He invaded India five times.
  • 1761: Third battle of Panipat. Defeat of Marathas.
  • As a result of invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah, the Mughal empire ceased to be an all-India empire. By 1761 it was reduced merely to the Kingdom of Delhi

Shah Alam II (1759-

  • Ahmed Bahadur (1748-54) succeeded Muhammad Shah
  • Ahmed Bahadur was succeeded by Alamgir II (1754-59)
    • 1756: Abdali plundered Mathura
  • Alamgir II was succeeded by Shah Jahan III
  • Shah Jahan III succeeded by Shah Alam II in 1759
  • Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for he lived under the fear of his wazir
  • In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar
  • Pensioned at Allahabad
  • Returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Marathas

Decline of the Mughal Empire

  • After 1759, Mughal empire ceased to be a military power.
  • It continued from 1759 till 1857 only due to the powerful hold that the Mughal dynasty had on the minds of the people of India as a symbol of the political unity of the country
  • In 1803, the British occupied Delhi
  • From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal emperors merely served as a political front of the British.
  • The most important consequence of the fall of the Mughal empire was that it paved way for the British to conquer India as there was no other Indian power strong enough to unite and hold India.

Succession States

  • These states arose as a result of the assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal provinces with the decay of the central power
  • Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad

Hyderabad and the Carnatic

  • Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724
  • Tolerant policy towards Hindus
    • A Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Dewan.
  • Established an orderly administration in Deccan on the basis of the jagirdari system on the Mughal pattern
  • He died in 1748
  • Nawab of Carnatic freed himself of the control of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office hereditary
    • Saadutullah Khan of Carnatic made his nephew Dost Ali his successor

Bengal

  • 1700: Murshid Quli Khan made the Dewan of Bengal
  • Freed himself of the central control
  • Freed Bengal of major uprisings
    • Three major uprisings during his time: Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan
  • Carried out fresh revenue settlement. Introduced the system of revenue-farming.
  • Revenue farming led to the increased distress of the farmers
  • Laid the foundations of the new landed aristocracy in Bengal
  • MQK died in 1727. Succeeded by Shuja-ud-din.
  • 1739: Alivardi Khan killed and deposed Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the Nawab
  • All three Nawabs encouraged merchants, both Indian and foreign.
  • Safety of roads and rivers. Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals.
  • Maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies
  • They, however, did not firmly put down the increasing tendency of the English East India Company to use military force, or to threaten its use, to get its demands accepted.
  • They also neglected to build a strong army

Awadh

  • 1722: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
  • Suppressed rebellions and disciplined the Zamindars
  • Fresh revenue settlement in 1723
  • Did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai
  • Died in 1739. Succeeded by Safdar Jung.
  • SJ’s reign was an era of peace
  •  made an alliance with the Maratha sardars
  • Carried out warfare against Rohelas and Bangash Pathans
  • Organized an equitable system of justice
  • Distinct culture of Lucknow developed during his period

Mysore

  • Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj and established his own authority over Mysore
  • 1755: Established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts
  • Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar
  • He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean
  • First and Second Anglo-Mysore War
  • 1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan
  • TS was an innovator. Introduced a new calendar, a new system of coinage and new scales of weights and measures.
  • Keen interest in French Revolution
    • Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club
  • Made efforts to build a modern navy
  • Mysore flourished economically under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
  • Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade
  • Some historians say that Tipu was a religious fanatic. But facts don’t support this assertion.

 

 

Kerala

  • Divided into large number of feudal chiefs in the 18th century
  • Four important states
    • Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore
  • In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma
  • Conquered Quilon and Elayadam, and defeated the Dutch
  • From 1766 Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin
  • Revival of Malyalam literature
    • Trivandram became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship

Rajput States

  • Rajputana states continued to be divided as before
  • Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era
    • Founded the city of Jaipur
    • Made Jaipur a great seat of science and art
    • Astronomer. Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura
    • Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations
    • Translated Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry” into Sanskrit
    • Social reformers. Reduce lavish marriage expenditures.

Jats

  • Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688
  • Jat state of Bharatpur set up by Churaman and  Badan Singh
  • Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763

Sikhs

  • Sikhsim transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru.
  • Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas
  • After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur)
    • He struggled with the Mughal army for 8 years
    • Put to death in 1715
  • Banda Bahadur failed because
    • Mughal centre was still strong
    • Upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him
    • He could not integrate all the anti-Mughal forces because of his religious bigotry
  • After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab, Sikhs were again resurgent
  • Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control
  • They were organized into 12 misls
  • Ranjit Singh
    • Chief of the Sukerchakia Misl
    • Captured Lahore (1799) and Amritsar (1802)
    • Conquered Kashmir, Peshawar and Multan
    • Possessed the second best army in Asia
    • Tolerant and liberal
    • Fakir Azizuddin and Dewan Dina Nath were his important ministers
    • “known to step down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his long grey beard”
    • Negative point: He did not remove the threat of British. He only left it over to his successors. And so, after his death, when his kingdom was torn by intense internal struggle, English conquered it.

Marathas

  • Maratha Families
    • Peshwa – Pune
    • Gaekwad – Baroda
    • Bhosle – Nagpur
    • Holkar – Indore
    • Scindia – Gwalior
  • The most powerful of the succession states
  • Could not fill the political vacuum because
    • Maratha Sardars lacked unity
    • Lacked the outlook and programme which were necessary for founding an all-India empire
  • Shahuji
    • Son of Sambhaji
    • Imprisoned by Aurungzeb
    • Released in 1707
    • Civil war between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai who ruled in the name of her infant son Shivaji II
    • The conflict gave rise to a new era of Maratha leadership, the era of Peshwa leadership
  • Balaji Vishwnath
    • 1713: Peshwa of King Shahu
    • Induced Zulfikar Khan to grant the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
    • Helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farukh Siyar
    • Maratha sardars were becoming individually strong but collectively weak
    • Died in 1720. Succeeded by his son Baji Rao I
  • Baji Rao I
    • the greatest extent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji
    • Vast areas ceded by the Mughals
    • Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand
    • Rivalry with Nizam ul Mulk
    • Compelled the Nizam to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces
    • 1733: Campaign against Sidis of Janjira and the Portuguese (Salsette and Bassein)
    • Died in 1740
    • Captured territories but failed to lay the foundations of an empire
    • Succeeded by Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)
  • Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
    • Shahu died in 1749. Peshwas became the de facto rulers
    • Shifted the capital to Poona
    • Captured Orissa
    • Mysore forced to pay tributes
    • In 1752, helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir
    • Brought Punjab under their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali
      • This led AS Abdali to come to India to settle accounts with Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat
    • Third Battle of Panipat
      • ASA formed an alliance with Najib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh.

Saranjami system:- Social and economic condition

 

GPS Aided Geo Augmentation Navigation (GAGAN)

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It is a planned implementation of Satellite Based Navigation System (SBNS) developed by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. GAGAN is expected to provide a civil aeronautical navigation signal consistent with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices as established by the Global Navigation Satellite System Panel. GAGAN was launched in August 2010. With this India has become the 4th Country in the World to have satellite based navigation system.  It is a system to improve the accuracy of a GNSS receiver by providing reference signals.

Chandrayaan-1

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Launch: October 22, 2008             Site: Satish Dhavan Space Centre, Sriharikota

The objectives of the programme were:

  1. To develop and orbit a spacecraft around moon using an Indian-made launch vehicle.
  2. To prepare a three-dimensional atlas of both the near and the far side of the moon.
  3. Chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface.
  4. To study the impact of Moon Impact Probe on the surface of the moon as a fore-runner to future soft landing missions.

NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) had on Chandrayaan-1 had detected water on the surface of moon. The mission was expected to last two years. However, the communication with the satellite was lost on 29 August 2009 and the mission was declared over. It lasted for 312 days and achieved 95 percent of its objectives.

Chandrayaan-1 was selected by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) as one of the recipients of its annual AIAA SPACE 2009 awards for contributions to space science and technology.

Read moreChandrayaan-1

Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)

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SDO is a NASA mission launched on February 11, 2010 which will observe the sun for over five years. The observatory is a part of the living with a star program. SDO’s goal is to understand the sun’s influence on earth and near-earth space by studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously. It will find out how the sun’s magnetic field is generated, structured and converted into violent solar events such as turbulent solar wind, solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

Internet Protocol version 6

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Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is a version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is designed to succeed the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). While IPv4 allows 32 bits for an Internet Protocol address, and can therefore support 232 (4,294,967,296) addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, so the new address space supports 2128 (approximately 340 undecillion or 3.4×1038) addresses. This expansion allows for many more devices and users on the internet as well as extra flexibility in allocating addresses and efficiency for routing traffic. It also eliminates the primary need for network address translation (NAT), which gained widespread deployment as an effort to alleviate IPv4 address exhaustion.
IPv6 also implements additional features not present in IPv4. It simplifies aspects of address assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration), network renumbering and router announcements when changing Internet connectivity providers.
The Internet Protocol Suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol used for relaying datagrams (packets) across an internetwork using theInternet Protocol Suite. Responsible for routing packets across network boundaries, it is the primary protocol that establishes the Internet.

Read moreInternet Protocol version 6

Role and Functions of Reserve Bank of India

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Role of RBI

Pre-reform Post-reform
Developmental Role: the developmental role has increased in view of the changing structure of the economy with a focus on SMEs and financial inclusion Priority Sector Lending: Introduced from 1974 with public sector banks. Extended to all commercial banks by 1992 In the revised guidelines for PSL the thrust is on ensuring adequate flow of bank credit to those sectors that impact large segments of the population and weaker sections, and to the sectors which are employment intensive such as agriculture and small enterprises
Lead Bank Scheme Special Agricultural Credit Plan introduced.
Kisan Credit Card scheme (1998-99)
Focus on credit flow to micro, small and  medium enterprises development
Financial Inclusion
Monetary Policy: the role of RBI has changed from regulating credit and money flow directly to using market mechanisms for achieving policy targets. MP framework has changed to promote financial deregulations and market development. Role as a facilitator rather than as principal actor. M3 as an intermediary target Multiple Indicator Approach
Regulation of foreign exchange Management of foreign exchange
Direct credit control Open Market Operations, MSS, LAF
Rupee convertability highly managed Full current ac convertability and some capital account convertability
Banker to the government Monetary policy was linked to the fiscal policy due to automatic monetisation of the deficit Delinking of monetary policy from the fiscal policy. From 2006, under FRBM, RBI ceased to participate in the primary market auctions of the central government’s securities.
As regulator of financial sector: As regulator of the financial sector, RBI has faced the challenge of regulating the increasing financial sector in India. Credit flows have increased. RBI had to make sure that financial institutions are regulated in a way to protect the consumers while not impeding economic growth. Reduction in SLR
Custodian of FOREX reserves Forex reserves have increased drastically. Need to manage it adequately and avoid inflationary impact
Inflation Direct instruments were used Multiple indicators
Financial Stability Closed economy Increased FDI and FII has made financial stability one of the policy objectives.
Money Market Narsimhan Committee (1998) recommended reforms in the money market

 

 

Indian Agriculture- Current Status, Issues & initiatives.

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Indian Agriculture

  • Mainstay of Indian Economy
  • Since independence, undergone a change from being the sector contributing the highest share to the GDP to one contributing the lowest share.
  • Agriculture is a state subject.
  • GDP contribution (Agriculture and allied sector)
    • 5 pc in 1950-51
    • 7 pc in 2008-09 and 14.6 pc in 2009-10. It was 19 pc in 2004-05. (2004-05 prices)
    • Agricultural GDP grew by 0.4 pc in 2009-10 and -0.1 pc in 2008-09.
  • Employment
    • 9 pc in 1961
    • 9 pc in 1999-2000
    • 2 pc in 2008-09
    • 1999-2000: Number at 237.8 million
  • GCF
    • Share in total GCF 2009-10: 7.7 pc (2004-05 prices)
    • GCF as % of agricultural GDP: 2007-08 – 16.3, 2008-09(P) – 19.67, 2009-10(QE) – 20.3
    • GCF as % of total GDP: 2007-08 – 2.69, 2008-09P – 3.09, 2009-10QE – 2.97
  • Contributes to agricultural growth and industrial demand
  • Contributed 10.59 pc of total exports in 2009-10.
  • Due to the large number of workforce in this sector, the growth of agriculture is a necessary condition for inclusive growth.
  • Food grains production
    • Highest in 2008-09: 234. 47 mn t
    • 2009-10: 218.11 mn t

Agriculture and Industry

  • Agriculture as
    • Supplier of wage goods to the industrial sector
    • Provider of raw materials
    • Consumer of agricultural capital goods produced by industry
  • Stagnation in agriculture
    • Get data on CAGR

Land Reforms

  • Great scarcity and uneven distribution of land
  • Focus of agricultural policies in the initial years was on institutional changes through land reforms
  • Two objectives of land reforms in India
    • To remove the impediments to agriculture that arise due to the character of agrarian structure in rural areas
    • To reduce or eliminate the exploitation of tenants/small farmers
  • Four main areas of land reforms in India
    • Abolition of intermediaries (zamindars)
    • Tenancy reforms
    • Land ceilings
    • Consolidation of disparate land holdings
  • Economic arguments for land reforms
    • Equity
    • Small farms tend to be more productive than large farms
    • Owner cultivated plots of land tend to be more productive that those under sharecropped tenancy
  • Abolition of zamindari was successful while the other three areas of land reforms met with limited success
  • Operation Bargha. Also, LR in Kerala
  • Regional trends in LR
  • Effect of land reforms
    • On tenants
      • Absentee landlordism declined
      • Tenancy declined. In some cases, tenants were evacuated from the land.
      • In some cases there was a drift of tenants into landless
      • Where tenants had not been evicted, tenancy was pushed underground
    • On equity
    • On productivity
    • On agrarian power relations
  • The National Commission on Farmers has placed the unfinished agenda in land reform first in its list of five factors central overcome an agrarian crisis
  • Way forwards
    • Land reforms that make tenancy legal and give well defined rights to tenants, including women, are now necessary

Technology and Green Revolution

  • In the early 60s India faced several crises
    • It had to fight two wars: Pakistan and China
    • Severe drought in 1965 and 1966
    • US was using PL-480 food supply as a means to twist India’s arms to meet US interests
  • This called for an overhaul of the agricultural strategy and the need to be self-sufficient in food production
  • Three phases of green revolution
    • 1966-1972
    • 1973-1980
    • 1981-1990
  • 1966-1972
    • C Subramaniam and MSS
    • 1965: Agricultural Prices Commission and Food Corporation of India set up
    • Introduction of HYV seed of wheat from Mexico created by CIMMYT
    • Under the new agricultural policy, the spread of HYVs was supported by public investments in fertilisers, power, irrigation and credit
    • Food grain production shot up
      • 1966-67: 74 mt
      • 1971-72: 105 mt
    • India became nearly self-sufficient in food grains
    • What led to the increased production?
      • Favourable pricing policy led to adequate incentives
      • National research system proceeded to indigenise the new seeds to tackle their shortcomings
      • Availability of inputs including canal water, fertilisers, power and credit
      • Subsidies
      • Role of credit began to be important after 1969
    • 1973-1980
      • This phase saw many challenges
      • Consecutive droughts in 1972-73
      • Oil shock
      • Production fell. Imports began again.
      • Thereafter, government increased fertiliser subsidies
      • Groundwater irrigation increased in  importance
      • HYV technology extended from wheat to rice
    • 1981-1990
      • 1986
        • Rice prod: 63.8 mt (1964: 37)
        • Wheat prod: 47 mt (1964: 12 mt)
      • Even when the ‘worst drought of the century’ struck in 1987, food needs could be adequately met due to buffer stocks
      • HYV technology spread eastward to states like West Bengal and Bihar
      • The impact of HYV technology had started to plateau however
      • Input subsidies kept on increasing
      • 1991: Input subsidy was 7.2 pc of agricultural GDP
    • What was the impact of highly regulated policies on agriculture?
      • There were barriers on pricing, movement and private trading of agricultural produce
      • The external sector was burdened with various tariff and non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade flows
      • The overvalued rupee produced an anti-export environment for agriculture
      • High protection to industry produced high industrial prices and adverse terms of trade for agriculture, reducing the relative profitability of the primary sector
    • What was the aim of agricultural pricing in pre-reform era?
      • Ensure inexpensive food for consumers
      • Protect farmers’ incomes from price fluctuations
      • Keep the balance of payments in check
    • Agriculture in post-reform era
      • Impact: 1. Growth in PCI led to an increase in food demand and also diversification. Terms of trade between agricultural and industrial prices improved in favour of agriculture
      • Increased profitability has led to increase in private investments which are now double the public investment in agriculture.
      • Growth rates
        • 1980s: 3 pc
        • 1990s:
        • 2000s:
        • Tenth Plan: 2.47 pc (as against 7.77 pc of overall economic growth)
      • This has however not translated into reduction of poverty
      • There has been an increase in both urban and rural inequality
    • Deceleration in agricultural growth
      • Declined during 90s
      • Deceleration in the growth of area, production and yield
      • Food production of Rabi crops has off late equalled the Kharif crops. This has to an extent reduced the over dependence on monsoon and imparted some stability to agricultural production
      • Area-wise, the deceleration was more in case of the Indo-Gangetic region
    • The instability in agricultural growth is more in states with high percentage of rain-fed areas
    • Acreage: declining trend in most crops during the period 1995-96 to 2004-05
    • Productivity: sharp decline (1995-2005). Healthy performance of cotton and maize though

Major factors affecting growth potential

  • Lack of long term policy perspective
    • No long term strategy for agricultural development
    • National Agricultural Policy was announced only in the year 2000
    • Sectoral priority to industry from the second FYP
    • Weaknesses of policies followed for agricultural development
      • Policies provided little incentives for the farmers as the prices were depressed and the sector was disprotected vis a vis other sectors of the economy
      • Inward-looking policies
      • Excessive price based focus than non-price factors like water, infrastructure, R&D, extension services etc
    • Investment in Agriculture and Subsidies
      • There have been cutbacks in agricultural investment and extension, but not in subsidies
      • Agricultural subsidy as pc of GDP:
      • Public investment in agriculture declined from 4 pc of agriculture GDP in 1976-1980 to
      • Subsidies on fertiliser, power and irrigation have contributed to soil degradation
      • It is important to reduce subsidies and increase public investment in crucial areas such as soil amelioration, watershed development, groundwater recharge, surface irrigation and other infrastructure
      • Public Sector GCF in agriculture stood at less than Rs 50 bn at 1993-94 prices
      • It is imperative to reduce these subsidies for stepping up public investment in agriculture
      • After 2003, the investments have started to increase. In  2006-07 public sector GCF was 3.7 pc of agricultural GDP and  total GCF was 12.5 pc of agricultural GDP
      • Three areas should get priority in public investments
        • Rural roads
        • Electricity
        • Irrigation projects
        • <all three of them are under Bharat Nirman project>
      • Complimentarity between public and private sector capital formation in agricultural sector. Public sector can create infrastructure while the private investment is essential for short term asset building mainly in the areas of mechanisation, ground levelling, private irrigation etc
    • Lagging research and development efforts
      • After the green revolution, there has been no major breakthrough in agricultural research. GM is a promising area but its safety has not yet been conclusively established.
      • Poor productivity in India compared to other countries and even compared to world average
      • India, however, has the largest public agricultural research establishment in the world. ICAR and agricultural universities
      • India spends only 0.3 pc of agricultural GDP for research as compared to 0.7 pc in other developing countries and 2-3 pc in case of developed countries.
      • There is hardly any scope for expansion of area. Hence, productivity must increase to keep up with the increasing demand. R&D has a lot of role to play here
      • New varieties of seeds need to be developed suited to different regions of the country
      • The research system should be responsive to the changing needs and circumstances
    • Technology generation and dissemination
      • Fixed land. Hence technology
      • Focus on yield as well as sustainable use of land
      • Focus should be on specific requirements of each agro-climatic region
      • Ned to develop much stronger linkages between extension and farmers
    • Rising soil degradation and over-exploitation of groundwater
      • Around 40 pc of Indian’s total geographical area are officially estimated as degraded
      • Soil health is deteriorating in Punjab and Haryana
    • Degradation of natural resources
    • Subsidies vis-a-vis investments and farm support systems
    • Agriculture’s terms of trade and farm price volatility
      • Ensure rapid development of backward farm linkages
    • Summary: Need to correct the policy bias against agriculture, make higher investments, develop new varieties of seeds, conserve natural resources like land and water and provide incentives to the farmers to adopt modernisation

 

Some Issues in Indian Agriculture

  • Low public investment
  • Halt in the modernization of agriculture
  • Agricultural indebtedness
  • Farmer suicides
  • Agricultural imports and future markets

Subsidies

  • Talk about bringing urea under the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) system and decontrolling its prices
  • Downsides
    • Fertilizer subsidy touched almost 1 lakh crore in 2008-09
    • Promotes overuse of fertiliser and thereby catalysing soil degradation
    • As a result, agricultural production in the bread baskets of the country has stagnated, posing a threat to the food security of the country
    • Drylands do not receive the benefit of crores of subsidy given in fertilizers

Government Intitiatives

  • Green Revolution
  • National Policy on Agriculture, 2002
  • National Policy for Farmers, 2007
    • Major policy provisions include provisions for asset reforms, water use efficiency, use of technology, inputs and services like soil health, good quality seeds, credit, support for women etc
    • Focus on millets as well

Agriculture during the 11th plan

  • Flagship schemes
    • Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
    • National Food Security Mission
    • National Horticulture Mission (2005-06)
    • Integrated Scheme of Pulses, Oilseeds and Maize
    • Technology Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture in North-east and Himalayan States (2001-02)
    • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
    • National Mission on Micro Irrigation was launched in 2010 in addition to the earlier Micro Irrigation Scheme launched in 2006
    • National Bamboo Mission
  • Avg growth of 2.03 pc against the Plan target of 4 pc per annum.
  • For sustainable and inclusive growth
    • Must focus on the small and marginal farmers as well as female farmers
    • Group approach should be adopted so that they can reap economies of scale
    • Bring technology to farmers
    • Improving efficiency of investments
    • Diversifying while also protecting food security concerns
    • Fostering inclusiveness through a group approach
  • Irrigation
    • Envisages creation of an additional potential of 16 mn ha
    • Bharat Nirman aims to bring an additional 1 crore ha of land under irrigation by 2012
    • Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme still on

Irrigation

  • 45 pc of nearly 175 mn ha of cropped area is irrigated
  • Trends
    • Nearly trebled from 24 mn ha in 1953-64 to 75 mn ha in 1998-99
    • It accounts for the largest part of total investments in the agricultural sector
    • Importance of ground water as an irrigation source has also increased considerably
  • Uneven access
    • Inter-regional variance
    • Inequality in access within the farming population
  • Areas of concern
    • Depletion of ground water
    • Environmental concerns
    • Costs
  • Steps to take
    • Improving water use efficiency
    • Water governance
    • Economic incentives for efficient use
  • Govt Schemes
    • Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme was started during 1996-97. It extends assistance for the completion of incomplete irrigation schemes
  • In 11th FYP – refer previous section

Way Forward

  • Second green revolution (?)
  • Relook at all the issues offering forward and backward linkages in the agricultural production cycle
  • Focus on oilseeds, pulses and coarse cereals
  • Coarse cereals: high nutrition, can be grown in dry areas, enhance fertility of soil in rotation
  • PDS should be reformed: coarse cereals should also be provided through PDS
  • Timely availability of credit at affordable costs
  • Wider extension of insurance facilities to the farm sector
  • Water and irrigation infrastructure
  • Drip irrigation
  • Organic manures should be popularized and their commercial production encouraged
  • Educate farmers about technology and agricultural techniques

Food Security

  • Food security should also incorporate nutritional security. This requires emphasising the increase in production of pulses, fruits, vegetables, poultry and meat.
  • Interpreted broadly
  • Includes nutritional security which particularly incorporates maternal health and infant health due to the involvement of the nutritional aspect
  • Also covers employment security (?)
  • Affordability, accessibility and availability
  • Food security seeks to address all the three dimensions of hunger: chronic, hidden and transient
  • It also is the first step towards inclusive development

Public Distribution System

  • High procurement prices

Irrigation

  • The total irrigation potential in the country has increased from 81.1 mn hectares in 1991-92 to 108.2 mn hectares in March 2010.
  • 1996-97: Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme initiated
  • Reservoir Storage Capacity: 151.77 billion cubic metres

Agricultural Pricing

  • To ensure
    • Remunerative prices to growers
    • Encouraging higher investment and production
    • Safeguard the interest of consumers by making sure that adequate supplies are available
  • It also seeks to evolve a balanced and integrated price structure in the perspective of the overall needs of the economy

 

Investment in Agriculture

  • FAO estimates that global agricultural production needs to grow 70 pc by 2050 in order to meet projected food demand
  • Hence investment should grow by a whopping 50 pc
  • In India, public investment in agriculture has witnessed a steady decline from the 6th FYP onwards
  • Share of investment in agriculture has been between 8-10 pc
  • Most of this has gone into current expenditure in the form of increased output and input subsidies
  • Though private sector investment has been increasing, it has not proved to be enough
  • Decreased public spending in creation of supporting infrastructure in rural areas has discouraged private investment in this sector
  • Some of the measures could be
    • Investment in general service like R&D, education, marketing and rural infrastructure
    • Increased investment in rainfed areas
    • Private sector participation
    • Increased investment for sustainable development

 

WTO and Agriculture

 

  • Uruguay Round multilateral trade negotiations were concluded after 7 years of negotiation in December 1993
  • The WTO Agreement on Agriculture was one of the main agreements which was negotiated
  • Agreement on Agriculture contains provisions in three broad areas of agriculture
    • Market Access
    • Domestic Support
    • Export Subsidies
  • Market Access
    • This is the most important aspect of the negotiation because all countries restrict market access while only few have export subsidies and domestic support
    • This includes tariffication, tariff reduction and access opportunities
    • Tariffication means that all NTTBs should be withdrawn (such as quotas, minimum export prices etc)
    • Adopts a single approach using a tiered formula
    • Single approach: everyone except LDCs have to contribute by improving market access for all products
    • Sensitive products: All countries can list some sensitive products and are allowed flexibility in the way these products are treated, although even sensitive products have to see ‘substantial improvements’ in market access.
    • Special and differential treatment
      • Purpose: for rural development, food security and livelihood security
      • Specifically, special treatment is to be given to developing countries in ‘all elements of the negotiation’, including ‘lesser’ commitments in the formula and long implementation period
      • Special products: developing countries will be given additional flexibility for products that are specially important for their food security, livelihood security and rural development.
      • Special Safeguard Mechanisms: is intended to provide contingent protection to poor farmers in developing countries from negative shocks to import prices or from surges in imports. [Safeguards are contingency restrictions on imports taken temporarily to deal with special circumstances such as a sudden surge in imports. AoA has special provisions on safeguards. In agriculture safeguards, (unlike normal safeguards) can be triggered automatically when import volumes rise above a certain level or if prices fall below a certain level; and it is not necessary to demonstrate that serious injury is being caused to the domestic industry]
    • AoA requires (from 1995)
      • 36% average reduction by developed countries, with a minimum per tariff line reduction of 15% over six years
      • 24% average reduction by developing countries with a minimum per tariff line reduction of 10% over ten years
    • Domestic Support (subsidies)
      • AoA structures domestic support into three categories
        • Green Box
        • Amber Box
        • Blue Box
      • Green Box
        • Non (or minimal) trade distorting subsidies
        • They have to be government funded and must not involve price support
        • They tend to be programmes that are not targeted at particular products and include direct income supports for farmers that are not related to current production levels or prices. They also include environmental protection and regional developmental programmes. These subsidies are therefore allowed without limits
      • Amber Box
        • All domestic support measures considered production and trade fall into the amber box
        • These include measures to support prices, or subsidies directly related to production quantities
        • These supports are subject to limits which are allowed: 5% of total production for developed countries, 10% for developing countries
        • Reduction commitments are expressed in terms of a “Total Aggregate Measurement of Support” (Total AMS)
      • Blue Box
        • This is the “amber box with conditions” – conditions designed to reduce distortion
        • Any support that would normally be in the amber box, is placed in the blue box if the support also required farmers to limit production
        • At present there are no limits on spending on blue box subsidies.
      • Export subsidies
        • Developed countries are required to reduce their export subsidy by 36% (by value) or 21% (by volume) over the six years
        • For developing countries the % cuts are 24% (by value) or 14% (by volume) over 10 years
      • India’s commitment
        • As India was maintaining QRs due to balance of payments reasons (which is a GATT consistent measure), it did not have to undertake any commitments in regard to market access
      • In India, exporters of agricultural commodities do not get any direct subsidy. Indirect subsidies are given

 

 

Food Processing

  • Food processing is a large sector that covers activities such as agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries
  • Ministry of Food Processing indicated the following segments within the Food Processing industry:
    • Dairy, fruits and vegetable processing
    • Grain processing
    • Meat and poultry processing
    • Fisheries
    • Consumer foods including packaged foods, beverages and packaged drinking water
  • Industry is large and has grown after 1991. However, of the country’s total agriculture and food produce, only 2 per cent is processed.
  • FP has 9% share in manufacturing
  • Structure
    • 42 pc: Unorganised
    • 33 pc: SSI
    • 25 pc: Organised

 

Constraints & Drivers of Growth
Changing lifestyles, food habits, organized food retail and urbanization are the key factors for processed foods in India, these are post-liberalization trends and they give boost to the sector.
There has been a notable change in consumption pattern in India. Unlike earlier, now the share and growth rates for fruits, vegetables, meats and dairy have gone higher compared to cereals and pulses. Such a shift implies a need to diversify the food production base to match the changing consumption preferences.
Also in developed countries it has been observed that there has been a shift from carbohydrate staple to animal sources and sugar. Going by this pattern, in future, there will be demand for prepared meals, snack foods and convenience foods and further on the demand would shift towards functional, organic and diet foods.
Some of the key constraints identified by the food processing industry include:

  • Poor infrastructure in terms of cold storage, warehousing, etc
  • Inadequate quality control and testing infrastructure
  • Inefficient supply chain and involvement of middlemen
  • High transportation and inventory carrying cost
  • Affordability, cultural and regional preference of fresh food
  • High taxation
  • High packaging cost

In terms of policy support, the ministry of food processing has taken the following initiatives:

  • Formulation of the National Food Processing Policy
  • Complete de-licensing, excluding for alcoholic beverages
  • Declared as priority sector for lending in 1999
  • 100% FDI on automatic route
  • Excise duty waived on fruits and vegetables processing from 2000 – 01
  • Income tax holiday for fruits and vegetables processing from 2004 – 05
  • Customs duty reduced on freezer van from 20% to 10% from 2005 – 06
  • Implementation of Fruit Products Order
  • Implementation of Meat Food Products Order
  • Enactment of FSS Bill 2005
  • Food Safety and Standards Bill, 2005
  • Mega Food Parks

Apart from these initiatives, the Centre has requested state Governments to undertake the following reforms:

  • Amendment to the APMC Act
  • Lowering of VAT rates
  • Declaring the industry as seasonal
  • Integrate the promotional structure

 

Plan Schemes

During the 10th Plan, the Ministry implemented Plan schemes for Technology Upgradation/Modernization/Establishment of Food Processing Industries, Infrastructure Development, Human Resource Development, Quality Assurance, R&D and other promotional activities.

In the 11th Plan, it has been proposed to continue assistance to the above schemes with higher levels of assistance. In the 11th Plan, the Ministry proposes to launch a revamped Infrastructure Scheme under which it will promote setting up of Mega Food Parks, cold chain infrastructure, value added centres and packaging centres. The Mega Food Park Scheme will provide backward and forward linkages as well as reliable and sustainable supply chain. The emphasis will be on building strong linkages with agriculture and horticulture, enhancing project implementation capabilities, increased involvement of private sector investments and support for creation of rural infrastructure to ensure a steady supply of good quality agri/horticulture produce. It will provide a mechanism to bring farmers, processors and retailers together and link agricultural production to the market so as to ensure maximization of value addition, minimize wastages and improve farmers’ income. The Mega Food Park would be a well-defined agri/horticultural-processing zone containing state of the art processing facilities with support infrastructure and well established supply chain. The primary objective of the proposed scheme is to facilitate establishment of integrated value chain, with processing at the core and supported by requisite forward and backward linkages. It is envisaged that the implementation of the projects would be assisted by professional Project Management Agencies (PMA) from concept to commissioning. In 11th Plan it is planned to support establishment of thirty (30) Mega Food Parks in various parts of the country.

Vision 2015 on Food Processing Industries

A vision, strategy and action plan has also been finalized for giving boost to growth of food processing sector. The objective is to increase level of processing of perishable food from 6% to 20%, value addition from 20% to 35% and share in global food trade from 1.6% to 3%. The level of processing for fruits and vegetables is envisaged to increase from the present 2.2% to 10% and 15% in 2010 and 2015 respectively. The Cabinet has approved the integrated strategy for promotion of agri-business and vision, strategy and action plan for the Food Processing Sector, based on the recommendations made by the Group of Ministers (GOM).

Integrated Food Law

An Integrated Food Law, i.e. Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 was notified on 24.8.2006. The Act enables in removing multiplicity of food laws and regulatory agencies and provide single window to food processing sector. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare has been designated as the nodal Ministry for administration and implementation of the Act.

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship & Management (NIFTEM)

The Ministry has set up a National Institute of Food technology Entrepreneurship & Management (NIFTEM) at Kundli (Haryana). The Institute will function as a knowledge centre in food processing. Certificate of Incorporation of NIFTEM as a section 25 Company under the Companies act 1956 has been obtained.

 

SWOT Analysis of Food–Processing Industry
Strengths

  • Abundant availability of raw material
  • Priority sector status for agro-processing given by the central Government
  • Vast network of manufacturing facilities all over the country
  • Vast domestic market

Weaknesses

  • Low availability of adequate infrastructural facilities
  • Lack of adequate quality control and testing methods as per international standards
  • Inefficient supply chain due to a large number of intermediaries
  • High requirement of working capital.
  • Inadequately developed linkages between R&D labs and industry.
  • Seasonality of raw material

Opportunities

  • Large crop and material base offering a vast potential for agro processing activities
  • Setting of SEZ/AEZ and food parks for providing added incentive to develop greenfield projects
  • Rising income levels and changing consumption patterns
  • Favourable demographic profile and changing lifestyles
  • Integration of development in contemporary technologies such as electronics, material science, bio-technology etc. offer vast scope for rapid improvement and progress
  • Opening of global markets

Threats

  • Affordability and cultural preferences of fresh food
  • High inventory carrying cost
  • High taxation
  • High packaging cost

 

Subsidies

 

Fertilizer Policy:    Urea is the only fertilizer under statutory price control.  Government of India has introduced nutrient based subsidy with effect from 1st April, 2010 in respect of phosphatic and potassic  fertilizers. Under the policy, subsidy is based  on the nutrient (N,P,K and S) content of the  decontrolled P and K fertilizers. Price of Urea has been increased by 10% while price of other subsidized fertilizers are being maintained around current levels. Additional subsidy on micronutrients has been introduced on Boron and Zinc, to begin with.  In order to promote the concept of balanced use of fertilizers and to encourage use of micronutrients, several fertilizers fortifed with Boron and Zinc have been incorporated in the Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985.

 

 

 

Salient features of Architecture – Forts and Monuments

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The architecture of Rajasthan is mainly based on the Rajput school of architecture which was a blend of the Hindu and Mughal structural design. The stupendous forts, the intricately carved temples and the grand havelis of the state are integral parts of the architectural heritage of the state. The Rajputs were prolific builders. Some of the most imposing and magnificent forts and palaces in the world dot the arid Aravali landscape and tell the tales of their glorious legacy.

M?ru-Gurjara Architecture show the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone era. M?ru-Gurjara Architecture has two prominent styles Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara.

Islamic influence in the architecture of Rajasthan is most prominent in the city of Ajmer. The important monuments of this city are the Dargah Sharif of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti which consists of a number of white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a huge gate donated by the Nizam of Hyderabad, a mosque given by Shah Jahan and the Akbari mosque. Hindu architecture can be witnessed in Pushkar where there are several Ghats and temples. The outstanding temples standing in an array, with their touches of the Islamic architectural style, are richly different in style.

Important Features of Rajasthani Architecture are:-


Haveli: Between 1830 and 1930, the affluent Marwaris constructed huge mansions in the Shekhawati and Marwar region. These buildings were called Havelis. They were heavily influenced by the Mughal architecture in their construction. There were two courtyards in a typical Shekhawati haveli. The outer courtyard was mainly inhabited by men and the inner one was the domain of women. The havelis also sported beautiful and appealing frescoes and were closed from all sides with one large main gate. This provided security and comfort in seclusion from the outside world.

Chhatri: Originating in Rajasthan, chhatris are elevated, dome-shaped pavilions and are visible elements of the Rajasthani architecture, where they are the symbols of pride and honour. In the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan, chhatris are built on the cremation sites of wealthy or distinguished people. Chhatris in Shekhawati are usually of a simple structure of one dome raised by four pillars in a building containing many domes and a basement with several rooms. Many prominent chhatris exist in cities like Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Haldighati, Bikaner, etc.

Jharokha: It’s a type of overhanging enclosed balcony which is commonly found in palaces, havelis and temples in Rajasthan. This balcony is normally a stone window. Jharokhas jut forward from the wall plane and can be used for either adding to the architectural beauty of the building itself or for a specific purpose. In the ancient times, the women in purdah could see the events outside without being spotted themselves. The projected balcony, which is an essential element of the Rajasthani Architecture, served as a decoration piece and as a viewing platform. Many jharokhas also have chhajjas attached to them.

Stepwell: A stepwell (or a bawdi) is a well or pond in which the water can be reached by climbing down a set of steps. These bawdis are common in the Western India, especially in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Stepwells have been in existence for hundreds of years. In the ancient times, builders dug deep trenches into the earth for dependable, year-round groundwater. The walls of these trenches were lined with stoneblocks but without mortar. Stairs were created leading down to the water. The majority of surviving stepwells originally also served as leisure points, as well as provided water. The city of Bundi (near Kota) has as many as 60 stepwells.

Fundamental Rights

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Fundamental Rights

  • Discrimination not on grounds only of
    • Art 15: religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth
    • Art 16: religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence
  • Reservation
    • First Backward Classes Commission: 1953, Kaka Kalelkar
    • Second BCC: 1979, B P Mandal (by Morarji Desai govt)
    • Article 340
  • Reasonable Restrictions
    • Speech and Expression: sovereignty and integrity of India, security of the state, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality, contempt of court, defamation and incitement to an offence
    • Assembly: sovereignty and integrity of India and public order
    • Association: sovereignty and integrity of India, public order and morality
    • Movement: interest of general public and the protection of interests of any scheduled tribe
    • Residence: interest of general public and the protection of interests of any scheduled tribe
    • Profession: in the interest of the general public
  • Protection against self-incrimination does not extend to civil proceedings
  • Protection provided under normal detention in Art 22 not covers arrest under the orders of a court, civil arrest, arrest on failure to pay the income tax and deportation of an alien

 

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