Conventional and Non Conventional Sources of Energy

Main Sources of Energy:

The sources of energy are of following types:

1. Conventional Sources of Energy:

These sources of energy are also called non renewable sources. These sources of energy are in limited quantity except hydro-electric power.

(a) Coal and Lignite:

Coal is the major source of energy. Coal deposits in India are 148790 million tonnes. Total lignite reserves found at Neyveli are 3300 million tonnes. In 1950-51, annual production of coal was 32 million tonnes. In 2005-06, annual production of coal was 343 million tonnes.

Lignite production was 20.44 million tonnes in 2005-06. According to an estimate, coal reserves in India would last about 130 years. India is now the fourth largest coal producing country in the world. Coal deposits are mainly found in Orissa, Bihar, Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. It provides employment to 7 lakh workers.

(b) Oil and Natural Gas:

In India it is found in upper Assam, Mumbai High and in Gujarat. The resources of oil are small in India.

In 1950-51, the total production of oil in India was 0.3 million tonnes. It increased to 32.4 million tonnes in 2000-01. Despite tremendous increase in oil production.India still imports 70% of has oil requirements from abroad. In 1951, there was only one oil refinery in Assam.

After independence 13 such refineries were set up in public sector and their refining capacity was 604 lakh tonnes. After implementation of economic reforms, private refineries are also engaged in oil refining. As per current rate of consumption, oil reserves in India may last about 20 to 25 years.

Electricity

There are three main sources of power generation:

1. Thermal Power
2. Hydro-electric power
3. Nuclear Power
4. Thermal Power:

It is generated in India at various power stations with the help of coal and oil. It has been a major source of electric power. In 2004-05, its share in total installed capacity was 70 percent.

2. Hydro electric Power:

It is produced by constructing dams over overflowing rivers. For example BhakraNangal Project, Damodor Valley Project and Hirakund Project etc. In 1950-51, installed capacity of hydro-electricity was 587.4 MW and in 2004-05, it was 19600 MW.

3. Nuclear Power:

India has also developed nuclear power. Nuclear Power plants use uranium as fuel. This fuel is cheaper than coal. India has nuclear power plants at Tarapur, Kota (Rajasthan) Kalapakam (Chennai) Naroura (UP). Its supply accounts for only 3 percent of the total installed capacity.

POWER FROM NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

India is one of the fastest growing countries in terms of energy consumption. Currently, it is the fifth largest consumer of energy in the world, and will be the third largest by 2030. At the same time; the country is heavily dependent on fossil sources of energy for most of its demand. This has necessitated the country to start aggressively pursuing alternative energy sources – solar, wind, biofuels, small hydro and more.

1. Wind Energy

India‘s wind power potential has been assessed at 48500 MW. The current technical potential is estimated at about 13 000 MW, assuming 20% grid penetration, which would increase with the augmentation of grid capacity in potential states. The state-wise gross and technical potentials are given below India is implementing the world’s largest wind resource assessment program comprising wind monitoring, wind mapping and complex terrain projects.

1. Hydro Energy

Hydro power is the largest renewable energy resource being used for the generation of electricity. The 50,000 MW hydro initiatives have been already launched and are being vigorously pursued with DPRs for projects of 33,000 MW capacity already under preparation. Harnessing hydro potential speedily will also facilitate economic development of States, particularly North-Eastern States, Sikkim, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and J&K, since a large proportion of our hydro power potential islocated in these States. In India, hydro power projects with a station capacity of up to 25 megawatt (MW) each fall under the category of small hydro power (SHP).

1. Solar Energy

India is a solar rich country. India is a country near the equator – which means that given its geographical location, it is subject to a large amount of solar radiation throughout the year. India is also, according to area, the 7th largest country in the world.

The average solar radiation received by most parts of India range from about 4 to 7 kilowatt hours per meter square per day, with about 250-300 sunny days in a year. As can be seen from the solar radiation map above, the highest annual solar radiation is received by Rajasthan (desert area) and the lowest by the North eastern states of India.

1. Biomass energy

Globally, India is in the fourth position in generating power through biomass and with a huge potential, is poised to become a world leader in the utilization of biomass. Biomass power projects with an aggregate capacity of 773.3 MW through over 100 projects have been installed in the country. For the last 15 years, biomass power has become an industry attracting annual investment of over Rs. 1,000 billion, generating more than 09 billion unit of electricity per year. More than 540 million tons of crop and plantation residues are produced every year in India and a large portion is either wasted, or used inefficiently.

69. E) Energy from Wastes: The rising piles of garbage in urban areas caused by rapid urbanization and industrialization throughout India represent another source of nonconventional energy. An estimated 50 million tones of solid waste and approximately 6,000 million cubic meters of liquid waste are generated annually in the urban areas of India. Good potential exists for generating approximately 2,600 MW of power from urban and municipal wastes and approximately 1,300 MW from industrial wastes in India. A total of 48 projects with aggregate capacity of about 69.62 MWeq have been installed in the country thereby utilising only 1.8% of the potential that exists.
70. F) Biofuels: The GOI recently mandated the blending of 10 percent fuel ethanol in 90 percent gasoline. This mandate as created an approximately 3.6 billionliter demand for fuel ethanol in blend mandate to the entire country. This significant demand growth creates a tremendous manufacturing opportunity for the fuel ethanol industry seeking to expand its investments internationally

 

 

 

Climatic Regions of India : Koeppen’s Classification
Climate Type	Climatic Region	Annual Rainfall in the Region
Amw (Monsoon type with shorter dry winter season)	Western coastal region, south of Mumbai	over 300 cm
As (Monsoon type with dry season in high sun period)	Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh	75 – 100 cm [wet winters, dry summers]
Aw (Tropical Savanah type)	Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips	75 cm
BShw (Semi-arid Steppe type)	Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large part of Rajasthan and contiguous areas of Haryana and Gujarat	12 to 25 cm
BWhw (Hot desert type)	Most of western Rajasthan	less than 12 cm
Cwg (Monsoon type with dry winters)	Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, Assam and in Malwa Plateau	100 – 200 cm
Dfc (Cold, Humid winters type with shorter summer)	Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam	~200 cm
Et (Tundra Type)	Mountain areas of Uttarakhand The average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C	Rainfall varies from year to year.
E (Polar Type)	Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh in which the temperature of the warmest month varies from 0° to 10°C	Precipitation occurs in the form of snow

 

 

 

 

 

 

Climatic Regions of India :Trewartha’s Classification

 

Climate Type	Climatic Region	Other CliamaticCondtions
Am (Tropical Rain Forest)	Western coastal region, Sahayadris and parts of Assam	200 cm annual rainfall  & 18.2 C to 29 C temperature
Aw (Tropical Savanna)	Peninsular India except the semi arid zone	150 cm annual rainfall &  18 C-32 C temperature
Aw (Tropical Savanah type)	Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips	75 cm
BS (Semi-arid Steppe type)	Runs southwards from central Maharashtra to Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh	40-75 cm annual rainfall & 20-32 C temperature
BSh (Tropical and subtropical Steppe)	Ranges from Punjab to Kutch	Annual temperature 35 C & 30-60 cm annual rainfall
BWh (Tropical Desert)	Western parts of Barmer, Jaiselmer and Bikaner and parts of Kutch	Annual Temperature 35 C & annual rainfall 25 cm
Caw (Humid Subtropical Climate with dry winters)	It ranges from Punjab to Assam	Rainfall from 100-150 cm
H (Mountain Climate)	Mountain areas of Himalayas including Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh	The average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C.

 

 

What is a Biosphere Reserve?

A Biosphere Reserve is a special ecosystem or a specialized environment with a flora and fauna that require protection and nurturing. These reserves are managed and studied for the conservation of various life forms found here. They are subjects of scientific and natural interest.

According to UNESCO, “Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located”.

In 1971, UNESCO launched a global programme to formalize the scientific interaction between man and his natural environment. This programme is called the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB).  Some 120 countries have joined in by establishing 669 biosphere reserves, including 16 transboundary reserves connected by the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The MAB is a worthy initiative aimed at conserving the ecology and environment which is essential to the very survival of many rare and dying species of flora and fauna. India, with its rich treasure trove of biodiversity, is geographically ideal for establishing, cultivating and maintaining a variety of biosphere reserves.

Biosphere Reserves in India

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India defines Biosphere Reserves thus – “Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof and representative examples of bio-geographic zones/province”. The Government of India has established about 18 different Biosphere Reserves in the country. Of these, 10 are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, set up under the auspices of the UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Not only are animals protected in the Biosphere Reserves of our country but the natural lifestyle of the indigenous people is also promoted. The communities in these regions are encouraged to retain their agrarian lifestyle and develop harmony with the plants and animals. The Biosphere Reserves of India correspond roughly to the IUCN Category V Protected Areas list and are often designed to include one or more national parks and national sanctuaries. The buffer zones of these Biosphere Reserves are open to economic activities as well.

 

 

2. Criteria for designation of BR

• A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature conservation.
• The core area should be typical of a bio-geographical unit and large enough to sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• The management authority to ensure the involvement/cooperation of local communities to bring variety of knowledge and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and  socio-economic development while managing and containing the conflicts.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of environment.

Vision

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic and interactive network of sites of excellence. It fosters the harmonious integration of people and nature for sustainable development through participatory dialogue; knowledge sharing; poverty reduction and human well-being improvements; respect for cultural values and society’s ability to cope with change – thus contributing to the Millenium Development Goals. Accordingly, the WNBR is one of the main international tools to develop and implement sustainable development approaches in a wide array of contexts.

Mission

To ensure environmental, economic and social (including cultural and spiritual) sustainability through:

1. The development and coordination of a worldwide network of places acting as demonstration areas and learning sites with the aim of maintaining and developing ecological and cultural diversity, and securing ecosystem services for human well-being;
2. The development and integration of knowledge, including science, to advance our understanding of interactions between people and the rest of nature;
3. Building global capacity for the management of complex socio-ecological systems, particularly through encouraging greater dialogue at the science-policy interface; environmental education; and multi-media outreach to the wider community.

 

3. International Status of Biosphere Reserves (BR)

The UNESCO has introduced the designation ‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural areas to minimize conflict between development and conservation. BRs are nominated by national government which meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to minimal set of conditions for inclusion in the world network of Biosphere reserves under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme of UNESCO. Globally 621 BRs representing from 117 countries included in the network so far.

 

4. Structure and functions of BR:

Biosphere reserves are demarcated into following 3 inter-related zones:

Core Zone

Core zone must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs having exceptional scientific interest. A core zone being National Park or Sanctuary/protected/regulated mostly under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Whilst realizing that perturbation is an ingredient of ecosystem functioning, the core zone is to be kept free from l human pressures external to the system.

Buffer Zone

The buffer zone, adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in this area in the ways that help in protection of core zone in its natural condition. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, etc; which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

Transition Zone

The transition area is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere reserve.  This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics of the region.

 

5. Tripartite functions of BR (Conservation, Development and logistic support)

• To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems
• To safeguard genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends
• To ensure sustainable use of natural resources through most appropriate technology for improvement of economic well-being of the local people
• To provide areas for multi-faceted research and monitoring
• To provide facilities for education and training

6. Management

100% grant-in-aid is provided under the Biosphere Reserve scheme for the approved items of activities for implementation of Management Action Plans submitted by the concerned States/UT. The activities permitted under the scheme are broadly under the following areas:

• Value addition activities
• Sustainable use of threatened resources
• Rehabilitation of landscapes of threatened species and ecosystems
• Socio-economic upliftment of local communities
• Maintenance and protection of corridor areas
• Development of communication system and Networking
• Development of Eco-tourism

BR scheme is different from other conservation related schemes. It has the focus on the welfare of local inhabitants through provision of supplementary and alternate livelihood support to the people in the buffer and transition zones in order to reduce biotic pressure on biodiversity of the natural reserves of core zone.

 

Main Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves

1. Achieving the three international functions: conservation, development and logistic support.
2. Outpacing traditional confined conservation zones, through appropriate zoning schemes combining core protected areas with zones where sustainable development is fostered by local dwellers and enterprises with often highly innovative and participative governance systems.
3. Focusing on a multi-stakeholder approach with particular emphasis on the involvement of local communities in management;
4. Fostering dialogue for conflict resolution of natural resource use.
5. Integrating cultural and biological diversity, especially the role of traditional knowledge in ecosystem management.
6. Demonstrating sound sustainable development practices and policies based on research and monitoring.
7. Acting as sites of excellence for education and training.
8. Participating in the World Network.

 

 

 

The bio-reserves in India

The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves in India,(categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. Animals are protected and saved here.

The Indian government has established eighteen biosphere reserves of India which protect larger areas of natural habitat and often include one or more national parks and/or preserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life.

The bio-reserves in India are:

• Achanakmar-Amarkantak
• Agasthyamalai
• DibruSaikhowa
• DihangDibang
• Great Nicobar
• Gulf of Mannar
• Kachchh
• Kangchenjunga
• Manas
• Nanda Devi
• The Nilgiris
• Nokrek
• Pachmarhi
• Simlipal
• Sundarbans
• Cold Desert
• Seshachalam hills
• Panna

 

Ten of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) list.

• Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
• Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
• Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
• Nokrek National Park
• Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
• Simlipal National Park
• Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
• Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve
• Nicobar Islands
• Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve

 

 

List of Biosphere reserves in India. Name of Biosphere reserve, Year of Notification, Total Area and Location is as follows…..

Sl. No.	Name of Biosphere Reserve	Date of Notification	Area of the core / buffer/transition (In Km2)	Location (States)
1	Nilgiri	01.09.1986	5520 (Core 1240 & Buffer 4280)	Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka).
2	Nanda Devi	18.01.1988	5860.69 (Core 712.12, Buffer 5,148.570) & T. 546.34)	Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts (Uttarakhand).
3	Nokrek	01.09.1988	820 (Core 47.48 & Buffer 227.92, Transition Zone 544.60)	Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya).
4	Great Nicobar	06.01.1989	885 (Core 705 & Buffer 180)	Southern most islands of Andaman And Nicobar (A&N Islands).
5	Gulf of Mannar	18.02.1989	10,500 km2 Total Gulf area (area of Islands 5.55 km2)	Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu).
6	Manas	14.03.1989	2837 (Core 391 & Buffer 2,446)	Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts (Assam).
7	Sunderbans	29.03.1989	9630 (Core 1700 & Buffer  7900)	Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system (West Bengal).
8	Simlipal	21.06.1994	4374 (Core 845, Buffer 2129 & Transition 1400	Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa).
9	Dibru-Saikhowa	28.07.1997	765 (Core 340 & Buffer 425)	Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts (Assam).
10	Dehang-Dibang	02.09.1998	5111.50 (Core 4094.80 &Buffer 1016.70)	Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.
11	Pachmarhi	03.03.1999	4926	Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
12	Khangchendzonga	07.02.2000	2619.92 (Core 1819.34 & Buffer 835.92)	Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim.
13	Agasthyamalai	12.11.2001	1828	Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala.
14	Achanakamar –    Amarkantak	30.3.2005	3835.51 (Core 551.55 & Buffer  3283.86)	Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattishgarh State.
15	Kachchh	29.01.2008	12,454 km2	Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State.
16	Cold Desert	28.08.2009	7770	Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu&Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17	Seshachalam Hills	20.09.2010	4755.997	Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh.
18	Panna	25.08.2011	2998.98	Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh.

 

The International Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves

The International Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves is the primary scientific and technical Committee body advising the International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of the MAB Programme and its World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) and the Director General of UNESCO on matters pertaining to the WNBR.

The Committee advise the Director-General of UNESCO and the MAB-ICC on scientific and technical matters concerning the nomination of new sites and, changes and periodic reviews of sites already included in the WNBR, as well as the development, operation and monitoring of the WNBR which they constitute in accordance with the Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework for the WNBR.

The Committee is composed of twelve members, who are appointed for four years by the Director-General, after consultation with the Member States and or the National Committees for the Man and the Biosphere Programme of the countries concerned.

The members of the Committee are selected for their scientific qualifications and for their experience in promoting and implementing the concept of biosphere reserve.

Designation of Biosphere Reserves

Article 5 of the 1995 Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserve, states the designation procedure for biosphere reserves. It reads as follows:

Article 5- Designation procedure

1. Biosphere reserves are designated for inclusion in the Network by the International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of the MAB Programme in accordance with the following procedure.
2. a) States, through National MAB Committees where appropriate, forward nominations with supporting documentation to the secretariat after having reviewed potential sites, taking into account the criteria as defined in Article 4.
3. b) The secretariat verifies the content and supporting documentation: in the case of incomplete nomination, the secretariat requests the missing information from the nominating State.
4. c) Nominations will be considered by the Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves for recommendation to ICC.
5. d) ICC of the MAB Programme takes a decision on nominations for designation.

The Director-General of UNESCO notifies the State concerned of the decision of ICC.

2. States are encouraged to examine and improve the adequacy of any existing biosphere reserve, and to propose extension as appropriate, to enable it to function fully within the Network. Proposals for extension follow the same procedure as described above for new designations.3. Biosphere reserves which have been designated before the adoption of the present Statutory Framework are considered to be already part of the Network. The provisions of the Statutory Framework therefore apply to them.

Periodic Review Process

The periodic review is an important event in the life of a biosphere reserve. It enables a review, every ten years, of the functioning, zoning, scale of the biosphere reserve as well as the involvement of the populations living in the site. The Statutory Framework for the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) makes provision under Article 9 that “the status of each biosphere reserve should be subject to a periodic review every ten years, based on a report prepared by the concerned authority, on the basis of the criteria of Article 4, and forwarded to the secretariat by the State concerned. The report will be considered by the Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves for recommendation to International Co-ordinating Council.”

The periodic review represents an opportunity to carry out a qualitative survey of the actions implemented, their results. It’s a time to take stock of progress made by the biosphere reserve, especially as concerns the updating of knowledge, skills and expertise in resource and ecosystem management. It also provides an opportunity to discuss the updating of the zonation system and assess its relevance, question the objectives and means of management policies and examine the issues and problems tied to implementation. It is also a time to discuss weak points.  Its objective is to improve the quality of the biosphere reserves and their functioning as sites for testing and demonstrating approaches to sustainable development. To date, 356 periodic review reports were received by the Secretariat and examined by the MAB International co-ordinating Council.

Biosphere reserves which are not able to meet the criteria of Article 4 have been withdrawn by the countries from the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) (see Article 9 of the Statutory Framework). As of August 2013, 16 sites have been withdrawn.

Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science. The Programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated by UNESCO in 1971. The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 1979, since then the network of biosphere reserves has increased to 631 in 119 countries across the world. Presently, there are 18 notified biosphere reserves in India.

 

 

 

Rajrishitulyakul

Rajrishitulyakul dynasty ruled over the south Kaushal. They ruled from 5^th to 6^th century AD. From the bronze inscription it is known that they followed Guptsamvata. This shows that accepted the supremacy of the Gupta Dynasty.

There are six known rulers of the Rajrishikulya Dynasty. They are all follows:

1. Sur
2. Dayit I
3. Vibhishan
4. Buimsen I
5. Dayitverman II
6. Bhimesen II

 

Nal Dynasty

NalDyansty ruled over the south Kaushal in the present day Bastar area. They ruled from 5^th to 12^th century. From the Rajim Inscription it is known that was the founder of NalDyansty.

Nal dynasty ruler Bhavdatverman and Skanda vermin has made Pushkari the capital city.

Vilas Tung was the ruler of Nal Dynasty, he made the Rajiv Lochan temple.

Nals were the contemporary of Vakatakas and Bastar was the centre of their power. Nal lost their power after defeating from Somvanshis.

 

Sharabpuriya Dynasty

It was established in 6^th century. Sharabh, the father of Narendra has established this dynasty.

Sharbhpur was the capital of this dynasty, which is near to Sirpur(Raipur district). There are two bronze inscription in Pipardula(Sanrangarh) and second Kurud(Raipur). These two inscription writes about Narendra’s kindness and his donation to poor. There is another ruler from this dynasty, Prashanna, who started gold coins and established Prashanapur near the banks of river Nidila. Sharbhpur, Shripur and Prashanpaur are written in bronze inscription. Sudevraj established Shripur. In 6^th century Sharabpuriya dynasty came to known as Amaryakul dynasty.

 

 

Pandu Dynasty

 

The first ruler of this dynasty was Udayan. Other rulers are Indrabal, Ishandev, Rankemedi and Bhavdev.

Tivardev made Pandu dynasty a strong kingdom. He was the follower of Shaivism. He adopted Kosalapati title after winning over Kaushal, Utkal and some other Mandals.

Mahanabhdev was the son of Tivardev. He started calling himself as somvanshis. In various inscription it could easily be seen. They patronized all the religions including Buddhists. Many scripture and Viharas are found recently found in recent historical search. Four Bronze inscription of Ballarjuna have been found from bardula, Lodhia, Mallar and Bonda.

 

 

Somvanshi

 

Somvanshiruled in south Kaushal from 9^th to 11^th century.

They considered themselves as the rulers of Kaushal, Utkal and Kalinga. They have adopted Trikalingadhipati title as well.

In their coin image of Rajlakskmi could be seen easily.

The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Shivgupta, Mahashivgupta, Bhimrath II, Dharmaratha, Nahutha, Yayati and Chandihar. Kalchuris continuously attacked on their kingdom. This has shaken their kingdom.

Rural-Urban Composition:

For the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas that in rural areas

Rural Population in India: 68.84%

Urban Population in India:31.16%

Level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011 Census

The proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%

 

INDIA/STATE/UT	TOTAL POPULATION	RURAL POPULATION	URBAN POPULATION	RURAL POP PERCENTAGE	URBAN POP PERCANTAGE
A & N ISLANDS	3,79,944	2,44,411	1,35,533	64.33	35.67
ANDHRA PRADESH	8,46,65,533	5,63,11,788	2,83,53,745	66.51	33.49
ARUNACHAL PRADESH	13,82,611	10,69,165	3,13,446	77.33	22.67
ASSAM	3,11,69,272	2,67,80,516	43,88,756	85.92	14.08
BIHAR	10,38,04,637	9,20,75,028	1,17,29,609	88.7	11.3
CHANDIGARH	10,54,686	29,004	10,25,682	2.75	97.25
CHHATTISGARH	2,55,40,196	1,96,03,658	59,36,538	76.76	23.24
DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI #	3,42,853	1,83,024	1,59,829	53.38	46.62
DAMAN & DIU	2,42,911	60,331	1,82,580	24.84	75.16
GOA	14,57,723	5,51,414	9,06,309	37.83	62.17
GUJARAT	6,03,83,628	3,46,70,817	2,57,12,811	57.42	42.58
HARYANA	2,53,53,081	1,65,31,493	88,21,588	65.21	34.79
HIMACHAL PRADESH	68,56,509	61,67,805	6,88,704	89.96	10.04
INDIA	1,21,01,93,422	83,30,87,662	37,71,05,760	68.84	31.16
JAMMU & KASHMIR	1,25,48,926	91,34,820	34,14,106	72.79	27.21
JHARKHAND	3,29,66,238	2,50,36,946	79,29,292	75.95	24.05
KARNATAKA	6,11,30,704	3,75,52,529	2,35,78,175	61.43	38.57
KERALA	3,33,87,677	1,74,55,506	1,59,32,171	52.28	47.72
LAKSHADWEEP	64,429	14,121	50,308	21.92	78.08
MADHYA PRADESH	7,25,97,565	5,25,37,899	2,00,59,666	72.37	27.63
MAHARASHTRA	11,23,72,972	6,15,45,441	5,08,27,531	54.77	45.23
MANIPUR	27,21,756	18,99,624	8,22,132	69.79	30.21
MEGHALAYA	29,64,007	23,68,971	5,95,036	79.92	20.08
MIZORAM	10,91,014	5,29,037	5,61,977	48.49	51.51
NAGALAND	19,80,602	14,06,861	5,73,741	71.03	28.97
NCT OF DELHI	1,67,53,235	4,19,319	1,63,33,916	2.5	97.5
ORISSA	4,19,47,358	3,49,51,234	69,96,124	83.32	16.68
PUDUCHERRY	12,44,464	3,94,341	8,50,123	31.69	68.31
PUNJAB	2,77,04,236	1,73,16,800	1,03,87,436	62.51	37.49
RAJASTHAN	6,86,21,012	5,15,40,236	1,70,80,776	75.11	24.89
SIKKIM	6,07,688	4,55,962	1,51,726	75.03	24.97
TAMIL NADU	7,21,38,958	3,71,89,229	3,49,49,729	51.55	48.45
TRIPURA	36,71,032	27,10,051	9,60,981	73.82	26.18
UTTAR PRADESH	19,95,81,477	15,51,11,022	4,44,70,455	77.72	22.28
UTTARAKHAND	1,01,16,752	70,25,583	30,91,169	69.45	30.55
WEST BENGAL	9,13,47,736	6,22,13,676	2,91,34,060	68.11	31.89

 

 

 

 

 

Age Structure:

 

Age- sex structure is one of the most important characteristics of population composition. Almost all population characteristics vary significantly with age.

Information is included by sex and age group (0-14 years, 15-64 years, 65 years and over). The age structure of a population affects a nation’s key socioeconomic issues. Countries with young populations (high percentage under age 15) need to invest more in schools, while countries with older populations (high percentage ages 65 and over) need to invest more in the health sector. The age structure can also be used to help predict potential political issues. For example, the rapid growth of a young adult population unable to find employment can lead to unrest.

Below is the age structure of India:

 

 

0-14 years: 27.71% (male 186,420,229/female 164,611,755)
15-24 years: 17.99% (male 121,009,850/female 106,916,692)
25-54 years: 40.91% (male 267,203,029/female 251,070,105)
55-64 years: 7.3% (male 46,398,574/female 46,105,489)
65 years and over: 6.09% (male 36,549,003/female 40,598,872) (2016 est.)

 

 

Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males. Sex ratio is a valuable source for finding the population of women in India and what is the ratio of women to that of men in India.

In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the population ratio in India 2011 is 940 females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011 shows an upward trend from the census 2001 data. Census 2001 revealed that there were 933 females to that of 1000 males.

While Kerala with sex ratio of 1084 top the list, Daman and Diu with sex ratio of 618 is at the bottom of the list.

Below is the list of states according to the sex ration. In the list we can see the states with good sex ratio.

 

		2011 Census
S.No.	State	Sex Ratio	Child Sexratio
–	India	943	919
1	Kerala	1084	964
2	Puducherry	1037	967
3	Tamil Nadu	996	943
4	Andhra Pradesh	993	939
5	Chhattisgarh	991	969
6	Meghalaya	989	970
7	Manipur	985	930
8	Orissa	979	941
9	Mizoram	976	970

 

 

 

Historical context

• The emergence of agricultural Price Policy in India was in the backdrop of food scarcity and price fluctuations provoked by drought, floods and international prices for exports and imports. This policy in general was directed towards ensuring reasonable food prices for consumers by providing food grains through Public Distribution System (PDS) and inducing adoption of the new technology for increasing yield by providing a price support mechanism through Minimum Support Price (MSP) system.
• In recognition of the importance of assuring reasonable produce prices to the farmers, motivating them to adopt improved technology and to promote investment by them in farm enterprises, the Agricultural Prices Commission (renamed as the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices in 1985) was established in 1965 for advising the Government on agricultural prices policy on a continuing basis.
• The thrust of the policy in 1965 was to evolve a balanced and integrated structure to meet the overall needs of the economy and with due regard to the interests of the producers and the consumers. The first Commission was headed by Prof M L Dantwala and in its final report the Commission suggested the Minimum Support Prices for Paddy.

 

Minimum Support Price (MSP):- is a form of market intervention by the Government of Indiato insure agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices.

• The minimum support prices are announced by the Government of Indiaat the beginning of the sowing season for certain crops on the basis of the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP). 
• MSP is price fixed by Government of India to protect theproducer – farmers – against excessive fall in price during bumperproduction years.
• The minimum support prices are a guarantee price for their produce from the Government that this will be the minimum price at which their product will fetch.
• If the market price is above,MSP,the farmer can obviously sell it at the marketIn case the market price for the commodity falls below the announced minimum price due to bumper production and glut in the market,government agencies purchase the entire quantity offered by the farmers at the announced minimum price.

  The major objectives are to support the farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for public distribution.

  As of 2015-16, Minimum support prices are currently announced for 24 commodities,which includes food grains like Wheat,paddy etc and non-food crops like raw cotton,raw jute etc.

• A pilot project under the Direct Payment Deficiency System (DPDS) for paying MSP guarantee for the cotton farmers has been initiated at Hinganghat taluka of Maharashtra in 2015. Under this system, the farmers will directly get the amount which is the difference between the Minimum Support Price (MSP) and the market price, should the market price fall below the MSP. For availing of the benefit, farmers would have to present proof of cotton sold at Agriculture Produce Market Committee yards, plus other papers such as ownership document, yield estimation and other details. If the pilot is successful, the DPDS would be rolled out in all cotton growing regions, as per the present decision. DPDS is essentially a mode of direct benefit transfer to cotton farmers.

  Then there is this concept ofPROCUREMENT PRICE, which is the price at which government procures food grains for buffer stocking and PDS purposes through FCI.

• Consider the situation where,in the wake of an imminent food shortage that may occur, the traders are willing to procure food grains in advance,driving up the market price.

 

• When the market prices are much higher than the MSP,the farmer will obviously be willing to sell it in the market.
• But the government,still, needs to procure food grains on its own to meet its distribution commitments inPDS at subsidised rates(issue price) and to create the buffer stock,necessary to intervene from supply side in case there is food deficiency and high food inflation.
• Therefore the government so as to fulfil these commitments,declares a Procurement price which is > or = to the MSP.

  The major difference between MSP and PP is that while PP is forfood grains only, MSP is for 24 crops which includes both food grains and non-food grains.

 

Method of Calculation

• In formulating the recommendations in respect of the level of minimum support prices and other non-price measures, the CACP takes into account a comprehensive view of the entire structure of the economy of a particular commodity or group of commodities.
• Other Factors include cost of production, changes in input prices, input-output price parity, trends in market prices, demand and supply, inter-crop price parity, effect on industrial cost structure, effect on cost of living, effect on general price level, international price situation, parity between prices paid and prices received by the farmers and effect on issue prices and implications for subsidy.
• The Commission makes use of both micro-level data and aggregates at the level of district, state and the country.

Supply related information – area, yield and production, imports, exports and domestic availability and stocks with the Government/public agencies or industry, cost of processing of agricultural products, cost of marketing – storage, transportation, processing, marketing services, taxes/fees and margins retained by market functionaries; etc. are also factored in.

Report of National Commission for Farmers (NCF) had recommended that MSP should be at least 50% more than the weighted average cost of production. However, this had not been accepted by the Government.
Procurement at MSP

• Farmers are made aware of the procurement operations by way of advertisements like displaying banners, pamphlets, announcement for procurement and specification in print and electronic media.
• Some States have taken steps to pre-register farmers for ensuring procurement from them through a software system.
• Keeping in view the procurement potential areas, procurement centres for MSP operations are opened by Government agencies, both Food Corporation of India (FCI) and State Government, after mutual consultations.

• Procurement centres are opened by respective State Govt. Agencies/ FCI taking into account the production, marketable surplus, convenience of farmers and availability of other logistics / infrastructure such as storage and transportation etc. Large number of temporary purchase centres in addition to the existing mandis and depots/godowns are also established at key points for the convenience of the farmers.
• The Govt. agencies also engage Co-operative Societies and Self Help Group which work as aggregators of produce from farmers and bring the produce to purchase centres being operated in particular locations/areas and increase outreach of MSP operations to small and marginal farmers. These Co-operative Societies are in addition to the direct purchases from farmers.
• Co-operative societies/Self Help Groups are engaged in many States like Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Rajasthan. Whereas, in some states like Punjab and Haryana, the Government of India has permitted the State Governments to engage locals for procurement of food grains from the farmers on payment of commission. These steps have been taken by Government of India so that Govt. agencies can procure maximum food grains directly from farmers by expanding out- reach of MSP benefit to farmers.

• Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the designated central nodal agency for price support operations for cereals, pulses and oilseeds.