1885 | W.C. Bannerjee | Bombay | ||
1886 | Dadabhai Naroji | Calcutta | ||
1887 | Badruddin Tyabji | Madras | ||
1888 | George Yule | Allahabad | ||
1889 | William Weederburn | Bombay | ||
1905 | G.K. Gokhale | Banaras – Issues like welcoming the prince of wales led to feud | ||
1906 | Dadabhai Naoroji | Calcutta – Approval of issues of swadesi & national education. | ||
Dadabhai Naoroji was chosen as compromise president. He | ||||
declared swaraj as the objective. | ||||
1907 | Rashbihari Bose | Surat – split | ||
1912 | R.N. Madholkar | Bankipur. Shortest session as the efforts to make Aga Khan | ||
preside over proved futile. | ||||
1916 | Ambika Charan | Lucknow. | ||
Mazumdar | ||||
1920 | Calcuttta. Approval of Non cooperation Movement | |||
1921 | Ahmedabad – intensify Non Copperation Movement. | |||
1924 | Mahatma Gandhi | Belgaun | ||
1928 | Motilal Nehru | Calcutta. Adopted the Nehru Report – Constitution. | ||
1929 | Jawahar Nehru | Lahore. The resolution demanding complete independence was | ||
passed on the banks of river Ravi. | ||||
1930 | No session but Independence Day Pledge adopted on 26th January | |||
1938 | S.C. Bose | Haripura. | ||
1939 | S.C. Bose | Tripuri. Formed ‘Forward Bloc’. |
indian history
Newspapers/Magazines/Weeklies
Harijan Bandhu, Harijan Sevak | Mahatma Gandhi | ||
Samvad Kaumudi, Mirat-al-Akhbar | Raja Ram Mohun Roy | ||
Tattvabodhini Patrika | Maharishi Devendranath Tagore | ||
Indian Mirror | Maharishi Devendranath Tagore | ||
Banga Darshan | Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay | ||
Maratha (English) & Kesari (Marathi) | Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak | ||
The Punjabi, ‘The Pupil’ (English) | Lala Lajpat Rai | ||
New India | Bipin Chandra Pal | ||
Bande Matram | Bipin Chandra Pal (Editing by Aurobindo Ghosh) | ||
Yugantar | Barindra Kumar Ghose & Bhupendra Dutta (Anushilan Samiti) | ||
Talwar | Verendranath Chattopadhyay | ||
New India | Annie Besant (Demanding Home Rule) | ||
Common Will | Annie Besant (Demanding Home Rule) | ||
Indian Sociologist (London) | Shyamji Krishnaverma | ||
Bandi Jivan | Sachindranath Sanyal | ||
Al-Hilal | Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (during Khilafat) | ||
The Comrade | Mohammad Ali (during Khilafat movement) | ||
Nation | G.K. Gokhale | ||
Karmyogi | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||
Prabudha Bharat, Udbodhava | Vivekananda | ||
Darpan | Bal Shastri Jambekar | ||
Socialist | S.A. Dange. |
Major Armed Uprising
Wahabi | Shah Abdul Aziz & Saiyed Ahmad Raebarelvi. Objective was to reform the Muslim |
Movement | society& convert ‘Dur-ul-Harb’ (Non-Islamic community) into ‘Dar-ul-Islam’. |
Origianlly the movement was started in Arabia by Muhammad Ibn-Aba-e-Wahid. | |
Its main centre was Patna, Sittana (NW province). | |
Kuka | Bhai Ram Singh (Disciple of Bhai Balak Singh). It is also called Namdhari Mission. |
Movement | Bhai Ram Singh asked his followers to worship cow & run langars, wear white clothes |
& not use any foreign commodity or service. Bhai Ram Singh was deported to Burma. | |
Santhal | Siddhu, Khanhu, Chand & Bhareo (four sons of Chulu Santhal of Raj Mahal district). |
Rebellion | Under the Permanent Settlement of 1793 the lands of Santhal passed to Zamidars & |
1855-56 | later to European Indigo planters. 10,000 santhals were killed in this rebellion. After |
this the area was put under the direct control of the Governor General & was named | |
Santhal Paragana. |
Vasudeo Balwant Phadke was born in Maharashtra. He left the army & became a revolutionary. Later deported to Aden & died in 1883. He may be justly called the father of militant nationalism in India.
Kisan | Launched by Lala Lajpat Rai & Ajit Singh. The passing of the 1906 Punjab Land |
Movements | Revenue Act & heavy increase in water tax caused panic. The poem of Banke Dayal, |
‘Pagri Sambhal O Jatta’ became famous. Lala & Ajit Singh were sentenced to 6 months | |
prison. Later the DSP of Layalpur Clough was assassinated. Ajit Singh escaped to | |
France while Bhai Parmanand’s house search yielded a book on bomb making. | |
Moplah | Khilafat movement in Malabar incited communal feelings in Muslim peasants directed |
Rebellion | towards Hindu land holders. |
Social Reformers & Their Work
Rajaram Mohun | Laid stress on the study of English & established the Hindu College in Calcutta | |
Roy | alongwith David Hare. | |
Maharishi | The grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore. He inspired a number of thinkers like | |
Devendranath | Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar & Akshay Kumar Datta who became Brahmo Samaj | |
Tagore | members. He din’t perform his fathers antyeshti samskara as it involved idol | |
worship. | ||
Keshav Chandra | He was greatly inspired with the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus Christ & hence he |
Sen | came in confrontation with Devendranath Tagore. Consequently the Brahmo Samaj |
was split into the Brahmo Samaj of India under him & Adi Brahmo Samaj under | |
Devendranath. He opposed child marriage but married her own minor daughter to | |
Maharaja of Cooch-Behar. Hence there was a further split into Neo Brahmo Samaj | |
under him & Sadharan Brahmo Samaj | |
Ishwar Chandra | Became principal of Sanskrit college in Calcutta. Opened the Sanskrit college for |
Vidyasagar | non Brahmin students. He founded ‘Bethune School at Calcutta’ to encourage |
female education. | |
Bankim Chandra | First graduate of Calcutta University which was estd in 1857 based on the lines of |
Macaulay Minute. He became a deputy collector. Wrote the famous Bande Matram | |
(Anand Math) & published Banga Darshan magazine. | |
Ramakrishna | Became a priest in the temple of Goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar. |
Paramhamsa | (1836-86) |
Swami | In 1893 he attened the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. In 1897 he established |
Vivekanand | the Ramakrishna Mission. His disciple, Sister Nivedita even helped many |
(1863-1902) | revolutionaries from Bengal directly. |
Swami Dayananda | Known in early life as Mul Shankar & born in Gujarat. Received his education at |
1824-83 | the feet of Swami Virajananda at Mathura. Founded Arya Samaj in 1875 based on |
a set of 28 principles (later 10). He estd the HQ of Arya Samaj at Lahore. Passed | |
away on Diwali at Jodhpur following the mixing of glass powder in his drink. | |
Through his Satyartha Prakasha he emphasized Vedas. He laid emphasis on the | |
worship of a formless god & abandonment of idolatory. He emphasized on | |
Ashrama system of education. He stressed on swadeshi, swadharma, swabhasha & | |
swarajya. He considered Vedas as infallible. | |
Jyotibha Phule | In 1873 he founded Satya Shodhak Samaj. Gave testimony before Hunter |
Commission against Christian missionaries. Later given the title ‘Mahatma’. | |
Sayyid Ahmad | In 1875 founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh which later |
Khan | became Aligarh University. Opposed polygamy, purdah, abolition of the practice of |
easy divorce, reform in madrasa. | |
Freedom Fighters | |
Lokmanya Tilak | Introduced the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi & Shivaji festivals. Paticipated in |
1856-1920 | Home Rule Movement in 1916. Called by Britishers as ‘Biggest Traitor’ & ‘Father |
of Indian dissatisfaction’ | |
Lala Lajpat Rai | Sher-e-Punjab. Was sent to Jail at Mandey on the charges of seditious activities. |
Sri Aurobindo | His development of National education & editing of Bande Mataram (started by |
Ghosh | Bipin Chandra Pal) gave momentum to Bengal partition movement. Left Baroda to |
work in the National College in Calcutta. | |
Chapekar Brothers | Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. Killed two British officials Rand & |
Aryst. Celcbrated Shivaji & Ganesh Utsavs. | |
Savarkar Brothers | Ganesh Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar & Narayana Savarkar. V.D. |
Savarkar organized the New India Association in London. Organizing lectures at | |
the India House founded by Shyamji Krishna Verma. He was linked to the | |
assassination of Jackson at Aurangabad. Sentenced to imprisonment in the | |
Andamans from 1911-24. | |
Shyamji Krishna | India House had become centre of V.D Savarkar, Sardar Singh Rana, Madam |
Verma | Bhikaji kama & Madan Lal Dhingra. |
Madam Kama | Represented India in the International Conference at Stutteguard in Germany. |
Madan Lal | He short dead the assistant of the Secretary of State Curzon Wyllie. Gopal Krishna |
Dhingra | Gokhale clled it as a heinous act meant to spoil the name of India. |
Chandra Shekhar | Involved in the assassination of Saunders (officer who ordered the Lathi Charge in |
Azad | which Lala Lajpat was killed), alongwith Bhagat Singh & Rajguru. He had chalked |
out a plan to blow up the train in which the Viceroy Lord Irwin was traveling. He | |
was killed in a police encounter at Alfred Park in Allahabad. | |
Harkishen Talwar | Shot the Governor of Punjab but the latter escaped with injuries only Later |
Harkishen was hanged. | |
Bhagat Singh | In association with Chhabil Das & Yashpal he had founded the Punjab Naujavan |
Bharat Sabha. | |
Rani Gaidinliu | Lead the Nagas in the revolt. Yadunaga was the other leader. |
Subhas Chandra | Passed the Civils in 1920 but preferred to serve the nationalist cause. He was |
Bose | elected the Mayor of Calcutta in 1923 but soon arrested & sent to Mandalay. |
Elected President at the Haripura session of Congress in 1938. He left for Kabul | |
along with his friend Bhagat Ram. From there he went to Germany & met Hitler. | |
He was first addressed as Netaji in Germany. | |
Udham Singh | Whilst living in England in 1940, Singh shot dead Sir Michael O’Dwyer, former |
Governor General of the Punjab. |
Modern Period
Later Mughals | |
1707-12 | Bahadur Shah I |
1712-13 | Jahandar Shah |
1713-19 | Farukk Siyar |
1719-48 | Muhammad Shah Rangila |
1748-54 | Ahmad Shah |
1754-59 | Alamgir II |
1759-1806 | Shah Alam II |
1806-1837 | Akbar Shah II |
1837-57 | Bahadur Shah II |
Later Mughal Rulers | |
Bahadur Shah I | After the death of Aurangzeb, prince Muazzam, Azam & Kam Bakhsh fought in |
1707-1712 | which Mauzzam emerged victorious & assumed the title of Bahadur Shah I. Banda |
Bahadur who killed Wazir khanwas defeated by him. Was referred to as ‘Shah-i- | |
Bekhabar’. | |
Jahandar Shah | Later after Bahadur Shah’s death, his son Jahandar Shah came to power after killing |
1712-13 | his other brothers with the help of Zulfikar Khan. He made peace with the Jats, |
Shahuji & honoured rajput kings. | |
Farrukh Siyar | Nephew of Jahandar Shah, Farrukh Siyar killed him with the help of Sayyid |
1713-19 | brothers – Abdulla Khan (Wazir) & Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). Farrukh Siyar |
tried to check the powers of Sayyid brothers but the latter got him killed & crowned | |
two princes Raffi-ud-Darajat, Raffi-ud-Daula in quick succession. Later they made | |
Muhammad Shah (Grandson of Bahadur Shah I) as the king. After his accession the | |
Sayyid brothers fell victim to the intrigue of Turani Amirs. | |
Muhammad | During his tenure most the independent kingdoms were established: Nizam-ul-Mulk |
Shah Rangila | (Deccan), Saadat Khan (Awadh) & Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal). Iranian King |
1719-48 | Nadir Shah invaded in 1739 on invitation of Saadat Khan (Awadh). The latter was |
imprisoned by Nadir Shah for not able to pay the promised ransom. Nadir Shah | |
took the peacock throne & the Kohinoor diamond with him. | |
Ahmad Shah | Son of Muhammad Shah. During his reign Ahmad Shah Abdali (claimed himself |
1748-54 | ruler of Kandhar after the assassination of Nadir Shah by Persian in 1747) |
repeatedly attacked. Later Ahmad Shah was killed & deposed by his own Wazir | |
Imad-ul-Mulk. | |
Alamgir II | Actual name Aziz-ud-din. Frequency of Abdali attacks increased. [1754-59] |
Shah Alam II | 1759-1806 |
Akbar Shah II | 1806-1837 |
Bahadur Shah II | 1837-57 |
Other Contemporary States | ||||||
Bihar | After Saadat Khan, *Safdarjung* became the king who was an impartial ruler & | |||||
carried out many reforms & was made the wazir of mughal empire. Shuja-ud-Daula | ||||||
succeded him to throne. He was also made the wazir of mughal empire but he sided | ||||||
with Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat. | ||||||
Bengal | Murshid Quli Khan was an able ruler. Later his son in law Shuja-ud-din & his son | |||||
Sarfaraz came in that order. Sarfaraz was defeated by Alivardi Khan of Bihar. Later | ||||||
Alivardi Khan was defeated by Raghuji Bhonsle & forced him to surrender Orissa. | ||||||
After the death of Alivardi khan his grandson Siraj-ud-daula tool over who lost to | ||||||
Britishers under Lord Clive. | ||||||
Hyderabad | Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724. | |||||
Mysore & | Since the downfall of the Vijaynagar empire Wodeyar dynasty was ruling. But in | |||||
Haider Ali | the 18th century two minister Nanjaraj & Devaraj usurped power early reducing the | |||||
King Krishna Raj to a puppet. Haider Ali rose to become the Commander-in-Chief | ||||||
of the Mysore army & became the sultan after Nanjraj’s death. He was defeated by | ||||||
Peshwa Madhav Rao. | ||||||
Tipu Sultan | He defeated the combined forces of Marathas & Nizam in 1787 & soon after | |||||
claimed himself Padshah at Seringapattam. He attempted to reduce the custom of | ||||||
jagirs& hereditary possession of poligars (small chieftans). He was a staunch | ||||||
muslim. He donated money to hindus but later got the temples abolished. | ||||||
Travancore | Martanda Verma | |||||
Rajput States | Marwar (Ajit Singh), Amer (Sawai Jai Singh) | |||||
Rohilkhand | Area between Agra & Awadh. Muhammad Khan Bangash ruled who was defeated | |||||
by Maharana Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand with the help of Marathas. | ||||||
Sikhs | Ruler of one of the 12 Misls called Sukarchakiya. He with the help of his brave | |||||
commander Hari Singh Nalwa won Multan, Kashmir & Peshawar. | ||||||
The Peshwas | ||||||
1713-20 | Balaji Vishwanath | Shahu appointed him as the Peshwa. | ||||
1720-40 | Baji Rao I | Baji Rao I succeded who was the most charismatic leader in | ||||
Maratha history after Shivaji.He conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand | ||||||
& even raided Delhi. | ||||||
1740-61 | Balaji Baji Rao | Son of Baji Rao I Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from | ||||
the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II) who defeated | ||||||
the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a | ||||||
terrible blow at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761-Panipat | ||||||
1761-72 | Madhav Rao I | Defeated Nizam, Mysore, Rohillas, Rajputs Jats. In 1771 he | ||||
confined the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II by giving pension. | ||||||
1772-73 | Narayan Rao | Short tenure. Tussle with Ragunath Rao over Peshwa claim. | ||||
1774-95 | Madhav Rao II | Became Peshwa after treaty of Salbai supported by Nana | ||||
Phadnavis. In the meantime Mahadji Scindia who had brought | ||||||
Shah Alam under his control became the actual ruler of Delhi till | ||||||
his death in 1794. | ||||||
1796-1818 | Baji Rao II | Incompetent son of Raghunath Rao (who was had earlier stuggled | ||||
with Narayan Rao to become Peshwa & sided with Britishers) |
Important Battles | |
1744-48 | First Anglo-French Carnatic war. Madras returned to British by the treaty of Aix-la- |
Chappalle. In battle of St. Thome, a small French Army defeated Nawab Anwar-ud- | |
din’s large one. | |
1748-54 | Second Anglo French Carnatic war. The French sided with Muzaffar Jang (grandson of |
Asaf Jah) & Chanda Sahib (in Carnatic) while the Enlish supported the claims of Nasir | |
Jang (son of late Nizam, Asaf Jah) & Anwar-ud-din (Carnatic) Initially the French | |
under Dupleix had success (& stationed officer Bussy at Hyderabad) but later the | |
English got hold. Treaty of Pondicherry signed. | |
1757-63 | Third Anglo French Carnatic war. French captured Fort St. David. Lally did the |
mistake of recalling Bussy from Hyderabad. Later the French were badly routed at | |
Wandiwash by the British under Sir Eyre Coote. | |
1757 | Battle of Plassey. British under clive & treacher Mir Jaffar routed Siraj-ud-daula. Mir |
Jafar was made Bengal but later replaced by his son-in-law Mir Kasim. He revolted & | |
was again replaced by Mir Jafar. | |
1760 | Battle of Wandiwash. French decisively defeated |
1761 | Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali |
1764 | Battle of Buxar. Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-daula & Shah Alam II defeated by Major Munro. |
Treaty of Allahabad signed which gave the diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa & Bihar to | |
the Enlish & trading rights in Awadh. Shah Alam on pension of 26 laksh/annum. | |
1767-69 | I Anglo Mysore war. Both the British & Haider Ali returned each others territories The |
britisheres committed to help Haider against a third party invasion | |
1775-82 | First Anglo Maratha war. The British army was defeated. The humiliating convention |
of Wadgaon was concluded in which the company was required to give up all the | |
advantages of Treaty of Purandhar. Peace was at last restored by treaty of Salbai signed | |
between Warren Hastings & Mahdji Scindia whereby salsette & Bassein were given to | |
the British. | |
1780-84 | II Anglo Mysore War. In 1782 Haider Ali passed away due to illness leaving the |
struggle to Tipu. War concluded by treaty of Mangalore | |
1790-92 | III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu signed the treaty of Seringapattam |
1799 | IV Anglo Mysore war. When the subsidiary alliance was offered to Tipu Sultan he |
flatly refused & hence the war happened in which the Marathas & the Nizam helped the | |
Britishers. Tipu died fighting the war. | |
1803-1805 | Second Anglo Maratha war. Marathas defeated. |
1814-16 | Anglo Nepal war. War came to an end by treaty of Sagauli |
1817-19 | Third Anglo Maratha war. Marathas decisively defeated |
1823-26 | First Anglo Burmese war. Buremese defeated & conducted Treaty of Yandahboo |
1839-42 | First Anglo Afghan war. The Britishers were defeated. |
1845-46 | First Anglo-Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Treaty of Lahore conducted |
1848-49 | Second Anglo Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Punjab annexed to British. Maharaja Dalip |
Singh given an annual pension of 50,000 pounds & sent to England for higher studies | |
& later converted to Christianity. The Kohinoor was gifted to Queen Victoria. | |
1852 | Second Anglo Burmese war. English successful |
1878-80 | Second Anglo Afghan war. English suffered losses. |
1885-87 | Third Anglo Burmese war. English annexed Burma |
1919-21 | Third Anglo Afghan war. English though victorious did not benefit from the war. |
Important Treaties | |||||||||
Treaty of Pondicherry | After the II Carnatic war. Muhammad Ali, son of late Anwar-ud-din was | ||||||||
accepted as the Nawab of Carnatic. | |||||||||
Treaty of Mangalore | Signed between Tipu & British in 1784. Under this Tipu withdrew his army | ||||||||
1784 | from Carnatic & English withdrew theirs from the Carnatic. | ||||||||
Treaty of Seringapattam | After III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu had to pay heavy war indemnity & send as | ||||||||
1792 | hostages his two sons to the English. Half of his territory was ceded. He paid | ||||||||
the war indemnity & his two sons were released. | |||||||||
Treaty of Amritsar 1809 | Signed between British & Ranjit Singh in which the latter recognized their | ||||||||
rights in the Cis-Sutlej areas. | |||||||||
Treaty of Sagauli | After Anglo Nepalese war. The Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai | ||||||||
region& ceded claim over the areas of Kumaon & Garhwal to the British. | |||||||||
Treaty of Lahore | After the first Anglo Sikh war. The territories lying to the south of river | ||||||||
Sutlej were given to the company. | |||||||||
Land Settlements | |||||||||
Zamindari System (19%) | Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of NW provinces & northern Carnatic. | ||||||||
90 % of the revenue went to government & 10 % to Zamindar (British) | |||||||||
Mahalwari System (30%) | Major parts of NW provinces, Central provinces & Punjab. Responsibility | ||||||||
of paying revenue was with the entire village or mahal. (Based on | |||||||||
traditional Indian system of economic community) | |||||||||
Ryotwari system (51%) | Bombay & Madras presidencies, Assam, Berar & certain other parts. Land | ||||||||
revenue was fixed for 20-40 years at a time (French in Origin) | |||||||||
Books/Articles & Authors (Modern) | |||||||||
Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins) | Jyotiba Phule | ||||||||
Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian) | Raja Rammohun Roy | ||||||||
Dharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji | Jyotiba Phule | ||||||||
New Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress) | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||||||||
Doctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram) | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||||||||
Indian War of Independence (seized by British) | V.D. Savarkar | ||||||||
Loyal Muhammadans of India | Sayyid Ahmad Khan | ||||||||
Tahaib-al-Akhlaq | Sayyid Ahmad Khan | ||||||||
Asbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting) | Sayyed Ahmad Khan | ||||||||
Neel Darpan | Dinbandhu Mitra | ||||||||
How did America get Freedom | Ram Prasad Bismil | ||||||||
The activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi, | Ram Prasad Bismil | ||||||||
Revolutionary Life | |||||||||
Systematic History of Ancient India | V.A. Smith | ||||||||
Hindu Polity | K.P. Jayaswal | ||||||||
Political History of Ancient India | H.C. Raychaudhary | ||||||||
A History of Ancient India; A history of South India | K.A. Nilkant Shastri | ||||||||
Hindu Civilization; Chandragupta Maurya; Asoka; | R.K. Mookerji | ||||||||
Fundamental Unity of India | |||||||||
History of Dharmashastra | P.V. Kane | ||||||||
The Wonder That was India | A.L. Basham | ||||||||
Socio-Religious Reformers & their Organizations |
Atmiya Sabha (1815) | Raja Rammohun Roy |
Brahmo Samaj (1828) | Raja Rammohun Roy. |
Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839). Later merged with | Mahrishi Devendranath Tagore. |
Brahmo Samaj in 1842 | |
Indian national Social Conference | M.G. Ranade |
Harijan Sevak Sangh | Mahatma Gandhi |
Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873) | Jyotirao Phule (fight caste oppression) |
Shri Narayana Dharma Partiplana Yogama | Shri Narayan Guru (fight caste oppression) |
South Indian Liberal Federation (later became | T. Teagaraja & T.M. Nair (Self respect) |
justice party & then Dravida Kazhagam) | |
Prarthana Samaj (1867) | Atma Ram Pandurang |
Arya Samaj (1875) | Swami Dayanand |
Servants of India Society (1905) | Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Rejected Knighthood) |
Hindu Dharma Sangrakshini Sabha (1893 at | Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. |
Nasik) | |
Abhinav Bharat | V.D. Savarkar |
New India Association | V.D. Savarkar |
Anushilan Samiti | Aurobindo Ghose, Barindra Kumar Ghose, B.P. |
Mitra, Abinash Bhattacharya & Bhupendra Dutta | |
Patriotic Association | Sayyid Ahmad Khan |
Muhammad Anglo-Oriental Defence Association | Sayyid Ahmad Khan |
Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha (1924) | B.R. Ambedkar |
Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha | B.R. Ambedkar |
Movements/Organizations | |
Aligarh Movement | Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan |
Deoband | Represented by Mohammad Qasim Nanautavi & Rashid Ahmad Gangohi. |
Movement | Nanautavi founded the ‘Dar-ul-Ullema’ madrasa at Deoband. This movement was |
strictly based on Islamic tradition unlike liberal Aligarh movement. The also | |
promulgated a fatwa against Sayyid Ahmad’s associations. In 1919, Mufti Liyaqat | |
Ullah Sahib founded the, ‘Jamaitul Ulema-i-Hind’ to further work in this | |
direction. His role was prominent in the Khilafat movement. | |
Muslim League | Nawab Wakar-ul-Mulk presided over a gathering at the invitation of Nawab Salim |
Ullah of Dacca. Muslim league was the result. The constitution of the league was | |
prepared in 1907 at Karachi. The first session of the league was held in 1908 at | |
Amritsar. The same year Aga Khan became the president. The league supported | |
partition of Bengal & was a loyalist organization. After 1913 Aga Khan left the | |
league which led to the emergence of new leaders like Muhammad Ali, Shaukat | |
Ali & M.A. Ansari. | |
Home Rule League | Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president & |
other members included Arundale, P.C. Ramaswamy Iyer, V.P. Wadia. | |
Balgangadhar Tilak had estd another Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune. | |
Champaran | European planters forced the farmers to cultivate Indigo on atleast 3/20 |
Satyagraha 1917 | (Tinkathiya) parts of their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani, |
Mahadev Desai accompanied him. An enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of | |
which even Gandhi was a member. | |
Kheda Satyagraha | Kheda peasants refused to pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha |
1918 | the government issued instructions to collect revenue only from those who could |
afford to pay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel supported Gandhi. | |
Ahmedabad Mill | Mahatma Gandhi considered 35 % increase in salary as just. He undertook a fast |
Problem 1918 | unto death & the strike came to an end. Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn |
was main lieutenant of Gandhi here. | |
Rowlatt Act | In March 1919, the Britishers passed the Rowlatt Act according to which any |
Indian could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. A nationwide satyagraha was | |
organized which involved arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Satyapal, Dr. Saiffuddin | |
Kitchlew & Arya Samaj leader Swami Shradhananda (shoot if you can rally). | |
Jallianwala Bagh | Demanded to know the whereabouts of Satyapal and Kitchlew throught the |
Massacre | reciting of the poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13th April, 1919). Martial |
law was proclaimed later at Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An | |
enquiry was setup under Hunter. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his title. | |
Khilafat Movement | Sultan of Turkey was the Caliph. The allied powers were arrayed against Turkey. |
Mulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saiffudin Kitchlew, Maulvi Abdulbari, | |
Hakim Ajmal Khan & the Ali brothers were prominent leaders. British signed the | |
Treaty of Tibers, partitioned Turkey & its Sultan was made a prisoner & sent to | |
Constantinople. | |
Non Cooperation | Approval at Congress session in 1920. Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie |
1920-22 | Besant & Bipin Chandra Pal not in agreement & left the congress. Students took |
their names off school. Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia | |
were set up. No Congress leader contested for elections. Mass demonstrations | |
before Duke of Connaught & Prince of wales. Tilak Swarajya Fund was | |
established. Moplah rebellion was the ugly face. Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, UP | |
incidence led to its recall. Congress leaders like Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das | |
formed as separate group within the congress known as Swarajya Party with a | |
purpose not to let the movement lapse. | |
AITUC | Formed in 1920 with Lotvala’s help. M.N Roy, Muzzafarabad Ahmad, S. A |
1920 | Dange & Shaukat Osmani led the trade unionist movements. The Britishers |
leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them. | |
Swaraj Party | Suspension of Non Cooperation movement disoriented the leadership. |
Chittaranjan Das & Motilal Nehru were called ‘Pro-Changers’ & did not support | |
the non cooperation movement. The other group was ‘no-changers’ & included C. | |
Rajgopalachari, M.A. Ansari. In 1923 Das & Nehru formed the Swaraj Party at | |
Allahabad with a view to take part in the 1923 Council elections. The swaraj party | |
got clear majority in the Central legislature & Provincial legislatures except | |
Bengal. After the passing away of Chittaranjan Das in 1925 the party weakened & | |
further some of the leaders became corrupt. Therefore in the election of 1926 it | |
suffered miserable defeat in all the provinces except Madras. | |
Hindustan | Established in October 1924 in Kanpur by revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil, |
Republic | Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal. The Kakori |
Associaiton 1924 | Train Action was a notable act of terrorism by this group but trial prooved to be a |
major setback.However, the group was reorganized under the leadership of | |
Chandrashekhar Azad and with members like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan | |
Vohra and Sukhdev on 9 and 10 September 1928- and the group was now | |
christened Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Bhagat Singh, | |
Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in March 1931. | |
Communist Party | Was declared illegal in 1934. This ban continued till 1942 when there was an |
of India 1925 | agreement that the communist will support British in the war effort & sabotage the |
quit India movement. In a memorandum to the Cabinet Mission in 1946, they put | |
forward a plan for the division of India into 17 sovereign states. | |
Bardoli Satyagraha | In Bardoli district of Surat under Vallabh Bhai Patel. The government had raised |
the tax rate by 30% despite famine. | |
All India States | Formed in 1926 whose first session was held under the presidentship of the |
People Conference | famous leader of Ellore, Diwan Bahadur M. Ramachandra Rai. |
Simon | The purpose was the review the Act of 1919 after a gap of ten years. The 7 |
Commission | member commission was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration |
under Govind Vallabh Pant at Lucknow & Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of | |
Simon Commission was published in May 1930. It stated the constitutional | |
experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful & in its place recommended the | |
establishment of autonomous government. It recommended special powers to | |
governor general & governors to look after the interest of minorities, | |
strengthening the centre, increasing electorate base on communal basis, | |
Indianization of defence forces, delink Burma from India & Sindh from Bombay. | |
The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status. It became | |
a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935. | |
Nehru Report, | Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indians to produce a |
1928 | constitution that would be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8 |
member committee headed by Motilal Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur | |
Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal Singh, MS Anney & G.R | |
Pradhan. The report was placed before Congress Session in Calcutta in 1928 | |
where it was adopted unanimously. It recommended reservation for minorities | |
instead of separate electorates. Jinnah & President of Central Sikh league, Sardar | |
Kharak Singh rejected it. Later Jinnah convened an All India Conference of | |
Muslims & drew up a list of 14 point. Jawahar & Bose were not happy with the | |
dominion status. | |
Dandi March | Reached Dandi after marching with 78 handpicked followers & formally launched |
April 1930 | the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the Salt laws. Many muslims kept |
themselves aloof but in the NWFP an organization of Khudai Khidmatgar | |
(Servants of Gods – Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) | |
participated in full. | |
I Round table | Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues |
Conference | as it was opposed by congress. |
Nov 1930 | |
Gandhi Irwin Pact | As per it Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement & |
March 1931 | participate in the Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not |
like this pact. | |
II Round Table | At London. Mahatma Gandhi returned to India as no agreement could be reached. |
Conference 1931 | In January 1932 the civil disobedience movement was resumed. |
McDonald | The British PM Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement according to which |
Communal Award | the depressed classes were considered as separate community. Mahatma Gandhi |
1932 | went on a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with the |
consent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which came to be known as ‘Poona | |
Act’. The British government also approved it. Accordingly 148 seats were | |
reserved in different provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award. | |
III Round Table | The congress once more didn’t take part in it. None the less the British |
Conference 1932 | Government issued a white paper which became basis for Govt of India Act 1935. |
Individual Civil Disobedience was launched in 1933 | |
Congress Socialist | founded in 1934 by Jai Praksh Narain & Acharya Narendra Deva within the |
Party 1934 | Indian National Congress. Its members rejected what they saw as the Communist |
Party of India’s loyalty to the USSR as well as the anti-rational mysticism of | |
Mohandas Gandhi. Although a socialist, Jawaharlal Nehru did not join the CSP. | |
After independence, the CSP broke away from Congress, under the influence of JP | |
Narayan and Basawon Singh (Sinha), to form the Socialist Party of India. | |
August Offer 1940 | Envisaged that after the war a representative body of Indians would be set up to |
frame the new constitution. | |
Individual | Started in October 1940. In it Vinoba Bhave, Jawahar Nehru & Brahma Dutt were |
Satyagraha 1940 | the first 3 satyagrahis. |
Cripps Mission | Viceroy Lord Linlithgow expanded is Executive council by taking five more |
1942 | Indians into it. The Indians were dissatisfied as it did not like the rights of the |
princely states to join or stay out of the Indian constitution. The demand for Pak | |
also not considered leading to Muslim league rejecting the plan. | |
Quit India | The fear of an impending Japanese invasion Gandhi launched this campaign. In |
Movement | the midst the government arrested all Indian leaders – Gandhi at Poona, others at |
1942-44 | Ahmadnagar fort. Rajendra Prasad was interned in Patna. The Congress Socialist |
Party whith its leaders like Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta Patwardhan played | |
important role. Communist Party remained loyal to the British. The Muslims by & | |
large remained indifferent. | |
INA | Captain Mohan Singh founded it in 1942. In 1943 he reached Singapore & gave a |
the cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’. He was made the president of the Indian Independence | |
League. The name of the brigades were Subhash, Gandhi, Nehru & Rani | |
Lakshmibai. In Nov 1943, Japan handed over Andamans & Nicobar Islands to | |
him. He named them Shaheed Island & Swaraj Island respectively. The army | |
marched towards imphal after registering victory over Kohima. But later Japan | |
accepted defeat & Subhas died in a plain crash after crossing Formosa Island. | |
C.R. Formula 1944 | To resolve the constitutional impasse Rajagopalachari evolved a formula in March |
1944. But it was rejected by Jinnah who would not settle without Pakistan. | |
Wavell Plan & | The main provisions were akin to Cripps mission proposals. It essentially dealt |
Shimla Conference | with the Indian demand of self-rule & reconstitution of viceroy’s executive |
1945 | council giving a balanced representation to the major communities. Executive |
council was an interim arrangement in which all but the Viceory & the | |
Commander in Chief were to be Indians & all portfolios except defence were to be | |
held by Indian members. Conference broke down because of Jinnah’s insistence | |
that Muslim league alone represented Indian Muslims & hence no non league | |
muslim members could be nominated to viceroy’s council. | |
Cabinet Mission | Pathick Lawrence (secretary of state for India), Stafford Cripps & A.B. Alexander. |
1946 | Jinnah stuck his demand for Pakistan. It proposed the formation of Union of India |
comprising both British India & princely states (only foreign, defence & | |
communication). A constitutional assembly was to be formed consisting of | |
representatives of Provincial assemblies & princely states, elected on communal | |
basis in proportion to the population of each province. Envisaged interim govt & | |
said that until the constitution is framed & the govt estd British forces will not | |
withdraw. The Congress & Muslim league accepted it in June 1946. | |
Elections | Following cabinet mission elections were held. Congress secured 205 out of 214 |
general seats & had support of 4 sikh members. The Muslim league got 73 out of | ||
78 Muslim seats. Jinnah became greatly disturbed by the election results. He | ||
demanded separate constituent assembly & started instigating violent action. Later | ||
16 August 1946 was fixed as direct action day to withdraw its acceptance of | ||
cabinet mission plan. Communal riots broke out in Bengal, United Province, | ||
Punjab, Sindh & NWFP. Interim government was formed with Jawahar Nehru as | ||
head& 14 members – 6 congress, 5 League, one each Christian, Sikh & Parsi. | ||
However Muslim league kept out of the Interim government. | ||
INA Trails | Held at Red Fort in Delhi. Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru fought the | |
case on behalf of three senior INA officers, Shahnawaz khan, P.M. Sehgal & G.S. | ||
Gurudayal Dhillon led to their acquittal. | ||
RIN Mutiny 1946 | Indians serving in the Royal Indian Navy mutined. Around 5000 naval ratings put | |
up INA badges. | ||
Mountbatten Plan | Mountbatten came to India as Viceroy. He put forth the plan of partition of India | |
in 3 June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into two parts with muslim & | ||
non muslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side to join. | ||
The power would be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held | ||
in NWFP, Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh | ||
was to decide whether to join India or not. | ||
Indian Independece | The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18th July 1947. | |
Act 1947 | Partition on 15th August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two | |
dominions. Abolition of the post of secretary of state for India. Pending the | ||
adoption of new constitution, the administration of the two dominions & the | ||
provinces would be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the | ||
government of India act 1935 though special powers of the Governor General & | ||
the Provincial governors would be ceased. Jinnah became the first governor | ||
general of Pakistan. | ||
Unification Drive | On 5th July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel appealed to the Indian provinces to handover. | |
He followed up his appeal with a hurricane tour of 40 days in which he invited all | ||
the native princes to join the Indian union by 5th August. In Kashmir Hari Singh | ||
sent his PM Meharchand Mahajan with the signed papers for the merger. In | ||
Hyderabad the nawab wanted to continue his arbitary rule with the help of | ||
Rajakars. Finally after military action, Rajakars were expelled & the instrument of | ||
accession signed. | ||
Pondicherry & Goa | The other French territories were Karaikal, Mahe,Yanam & Chandernagore. | |
Chandernagore had acceded to India on the basis of a plebiscite. In 1954 all the | ||
French possession in India were formally handed over to India though the legal | ||
transfer took place in 1962. Operation ‘Vijay’ was carried out for the liberation of | ||
Goa when satyagraha failed in 1961. It became a state in 1987. |
Medieval India
North India | ||||||
Ghadvalas | Chandradeva*. Jaichandra fought Muhammad Ghur | |||||
Chandellas of Jejakabhukti/Bundelkhand | *Vidyadhara* & Yashovarman | |||||
Paramaras of Malwa | Vakpati Munjal & *Bhoja* | |||||
Chahamanas/Chauhans of Sakambhari | Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva, *Prithviraj III* (Chauhan) | |||||
Kalachuris of Tripuri | Kokalla, Gangeyadeva & *Karna* (Rajshekhara) | |||||
Chalukyas/Solankis of Gujarat | Bhima I & *Jayasimha Siddharaja* | |||||
Kashmir | Avantivarman (supplanted Karkota dynasty to which | |||||
belonged Lalitaditya Muktapida. | ||||||
East & the North East | ||||||
Bengal (Sena dynasty) | Lakshmanasena (last Hindu ruler of Bengal) | |||||
Orissa | Avantavarman Chodaganga (Mother daughter of Rajendra | |||||
Chola) of Eastern Gangas & Narsimha I (sun temple) | ||||||
Assam (Ahoms) | Ahoms, a Shan tribe settled in mid 13th Century. | |||||
Deccan & the South | ||||||
Chalukyas of Kalyani | *Vikramaditya VI* (Introduced Chalukya-Vikram era) | |||||
Bilhana’s Vikramanankadevacharita is based on him | ||||||
Yadavas of Devagiri | Bhillama V*, *Simhana* | |||||
Kakatiyas of Warangal | Ganapati (ruled for 60 years) | |||||
Cholas | Vijayalaya*, Rajaraja the Great, *Rajendra I*, Rajadhiraja, | |||||
Rajendra II, Kulottunga I | ||||||
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra | Nrpakama*, Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II & Ballala III | |||||
Pandyas | *Jatavarman Sundara.Pandya I* | |||||
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD) | ||||||
Slave Dynasty | Sayyid Dynasty | |||||
1206-10 | Qutubuddin Aibak. | 1412-20 | Khizr Khan | |||
1210-36 | Shamsuddin Iltutmish | 1420-33 | Mubarak Shah | |||
1237-41 | Razia Sultana | 1433-43 | Muhammad Shah | |||
1241-46 | Bahram Shah & Masud Shah | 1443-51 | Alauddin Alam Shah | |||
1246-66 | Nasirruddin Mahmud | Lodhi Dynasty | ||||
1266-86 | Balban | 1451-89 | Bahlul Lodhi | |||
1286-90 | Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimur | 1489-1517 | Sikander Lodhi | |||
Khalji Dynasty | 1517-26 | Ibrahim Lodhi | ||||
1290-96 | Jallaluddin Khalji | |||||
1296-1316 | Allauddin Khalji | |||||
1316-20 | Mubarak Shah & Khusrau khan | |||||
Tughlaq Dynasty | ||||||
1320-25 | Ghiasuddin Tughlaq | |||||
1325-51 | Muhammad bin Tughlaq | |||||
1351-88 | Firuz Shah Tughlaq | |||||
1388-94 | Mohammad Khan, Ghiasuddin Tughlaq Shah II, | |||||
Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin Muhammad, Humayun | ||||||
1394-12 | Nasirrudin Mahmud Tughlaq |
Delhi Sultanate | ||||||
Slave | Qutbuddin | Died while playing Chaugan. Aram Shah (short period) | ||||
Aibak | ||||||
Shamsuddin | He defeated Yalduz of Ghazni & Qubacha of Multan. Captured the | |||||
Iltutmish | fort of Ranthambor, Lakhnauti. Organized the iqta system (land | |||||
assignment) & currency (introduced copper tanka & silver jital). | ||||||
Razia Sultana | Married Malik Altunia (Governor of Bhatinda). Turkish Aamirs | |||||
played the dominant role & after Razia, they enthroned Bahram | ||||||
Shah, Masud Shah & Nasiruddin Mahmud in that order. | ||||||
Balban (Ulugh | Balban was Turkish slave of Iltutmish. He poisoned his master | |||||
Khan) | Nasiruddin Mahmud. Killed the rebel governor of Bengal, Tughril | |||||
Khan. He revived the practice of sijda (prostration) & paibos | ||||||
(kissing monarch’s feet). | ||||||
Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimurs had short duration. | ||||||
Khalji | Jalaluddin Khalji | Descended at the age of seventy. Later Alauddin murdered his uncle | ||||
& father in law Jalaluddin & seized the throne. | ||||||
Alauddin Khalji | Lay seige to Ranthambor which was under redoubtable Hammir | |||||
Deva which continued till one year. Later Chittor under Ratan | ||||||
Singh (wife Padmini) fell & was renamed Kizhrabad. Malik Kafur | ||||||
campaigned | against | Kaktiyas | (Warangal), | Hoysalas | ||
(Dwarasamudra) & Pandyas. Mubarak Shah (son) & Khusrau khan | ||||||
had short rule. | ||||||
Kharaj (land tax – 50%), Charai, Gharii (dwelling tax). First to | ||||||
introduce permanent standing army, dagh & chehra. Afghans & | ||||||
Sultan’s Indian officers rose to prominence. | ||||||
Tughlaq | Ghiyasuddin | Earlier called Ghazi Malik. Ghiasuddin had repelled mongol attack | ||||
Tughlaq | under khaljis before ascending throne. Attaked Kaktiyas & Bengal | |||||
succesfully. Founded third city of Delhi – Tughlaqabad. | ||||||
Muhammad bin | Open consorting with Hindus & Jogis. Killed Ulemas, qazis who | |||||
Tughlaq | rose in rebellion. Shifted capital to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad), | |||||
token currency (bronze coin-jittal). Shifted to Swargadwari during | ||||||
famine. At his death Barani commented, ‘at last the people got rid | ||||||
of him & he got rid of the people’. First sultan to visit the shrine of | ||||||
Moinuddin Chisti. Disciple of Shaikh Alauddin & Jinaprabha Suri. | ||||||
Firuz Shah | Not a military leader. Conqured Thatta, Orissa (uprooted Jagannath | |||||
Tughlaq | idol), Nagarkot. Distributed iqtas, made them heritable increased | |||||
salaries. Founded Fatehabad, Hissar, Firuzpur, Jaunpur & | ||||||
Firuzabad. Built canals. Influence of Ulema revived. First muslim | ||||||
ruler to impose Jaziya on Brahmins but abolished Ghari & Charai. | ||||||
Visited the shrine of Salar Masud Ghazi & became fanatical. | ||||||
Removed paintings from palace. Got many sanskirt works | ||||||
translated in Persian |
South India | ||
Vijaynagar | Harihara & | These brothers were released by Muhammad Tughlaq & they laid |
Bukka | the foundation of Vijaynagar empire (Sangama dynasty) | |
Deva Raya I | Succeded his father Harihara II. Lead a crushing defeat against | |
Sultan Firuz Shah Bahmani. Constuction of dam across the | ||
Tungabhadra. Italian, Nicolo de Conti came during his period. | ||
Deva Raya II | Sometimes called Immadi Deva Raya. One of the greatest Sultan. | |
Bahamani | Firuz Shah | Great king. Lost to Deva Raya I & abdicated throne in favour of his |
Bahman | brother Ahmad Shah I who transferred Bahmani Kingdom capital | |
from Gulbarga to Bidar. Later with the help of Iranian prime | ||
minister Mahmud Gawan, Ahmad Shah I expanded considerably. | ||
Later Bhahmani kingdom got divied into five regions – Golconda, | ||
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar & Bidar. | ||
Tuluva | *Kishna Deva | After Deva Raya II came Suluva dyansty, which was replaced by |
Raya* | Tuluva dynasty whose geatest ruler was Krishna Deva Raya. Ablest | |
of Vijaynagar soverigns. After him Rama Raja succeded. | ||
Delhi Sultanate Continued | ||
Timur | Timur 1398 AD | During the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq who fled the city. He |
Invastion | assigned Delhi to Khizr Khan & hence Sayyid dynasty was born. | |
Sayyids | Khizr Khan | Khizr Khan’s reign as well as that of his successors, Mubarak Shah, |
Muhammad Shah & Alauddin Alam Shah was spent trying to | ||
control the rebellious leaders (esp. Khokhars led by Jasrath). | ||
Lodis | Bahlul Lodi | First dynasty to be headed by Afghans. Principal event of Bahlul |
Lodi’s life was the annexation of Juanpur kingdom. | ||
Sikander Lodi | Contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat & Rana Sanga of | |
Mewar. The rent rolls of his reign formed the basis during Sher | ||
Shah Suri period. Imposed the Jaziya. The Bahluli coin remained in | ||
circulation till Akbar’s rule. He was the only sultan to be killed in | ||
the battle field. | ||
Smaller States | ||
Assam | Ahoms – Greatest ruler during this peiod was Suhungmung | |
Gujarat | Muzaffar’s Shah grandson, Ahmad Shah I founded new capital Ahmedabad. Was the | |
first sultan to levy Jaziya on hindus of Gujarat. *Mahmud Begarha* was the greatest | ||
Mewar | Rana Kumbha. His grandson was Rana Sanga. | |
Amber | Under Prithviraj who fought under Rana Sanga at Khanua | |
Jaunpur | Under Sharquis. Jaunpur is in eastern U.P. | |
Kashmir | *Zianul Abidin*. Abolished Jaziya. Got Ramayana & Mahabharata translated into | |
Persian. Allowed Kashmiri pandits to return to the state. |
Mughal Empire | |
Babur | Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. Ascended throne of Farghana. Daulat Khan Lodi, |
1526-30 | govenror of Punjab invited him to dethrone Ibrahim Lodi but later retracted. Ibrahim Lodi |
perished in 1526 at Panipat. Battle of Khanua in 1527 against Rana Sanga in which Babur | |
won by effective use of artillery & mounted archers. Died around 1529 & burried at | |
Kabul. Introduced Char Bagh (symmetric gardens). | |
Himayun | His early fight was with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat whom he defeated but did not depose. |
1530-56 | In Bihar the Afghans rallied under Sher Shah Suri. At the battle of Chausa in 1939 |
Himayun was defeated by Sher Shah. He finally left India in 1544 for the Safavid court. A | |
decade after the death of Sher Shah, Himayun occupied back Delhi but died within seven | |
months after a fall from the steps of his library. | |
Sher Shah | Son of a small Jagirdar from Jaunpur. Defeated Raja Maldeo of Marwar in the battle of |
1540-45 | Samel in 1544 & also won Chittor. He realized Jaziya from Hindus. Revived system of |
Dagh & Chehra. Introduced a system of crop rates form the first time. Introduced uniform | |
standard gold, silver & copper coins replacing the debased coins & introduced uniform | |
weights. Maintained army through Sawars. Died in 1545 (5 years rule). | |
Akbar | Born in Amarkot. Bairam Khan invited Hemu (Afhan assumed title of Hemchandra |
1556-1605 | Vikramaditya) in 1556 at the second battle of Panipat in which Hemu was slained. Later |
Akbar discharged Bairam Khan & married his widow. Akbar’s foster mothers son Adam | |
Khan won Malwa defeating Baz Bahadur. Won at Gondwana, Chittor (Udai Sing), | |
Ranthambor & Marwar. Rana Pratap ascended Mewar after the death of Udai Singh. In | |
1576 the Haldi ghati war between Man Singh (grandson of Bhara Mal of Amber who | |
entered imperial services) & Rana Pratap. In 1571 Akbar shifted his capital to Fatehpur | |
Sikri. Later marched against Ahmedabad, Kabul (deposed Mirza Hakim). In 1585 he | |
trasnferred his capital to Lahore. Later won Baluchistan, Qandhar, Ahmadnagar (Chand | |
Bibi), Khandesh (Akbar’s last major miliary campaign). In 1579 he abolished Jaziya. He | |
issued Mahzar which entitle him to choose one of the interpretations of Muslim law. Only | |
Raja Birbal accepted Din-i-Ilahi. Todar Mal, Bhagwan das, Man Singh declined it. He | |
abolished the position of wazir after Bairam khan. Revived chehra & dagh. | |
Jehangir | Jehangir’s elder brother Khusrau revolted thrice against Akbar & was blinded. He became |
1605-27 | the first ruler to conquer Kangra. Amar Singh, Son of Rana Pratap at Ajmer also |
surrendered. The Persians got control of Qandhar back in their second attempt. Deccan | |
(ruled by Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar) was subdued again by prince Khurram. Jehangir | |
ordered the murder of fifth sikh guru Arjun Dev (the first to be murdered by Mughals). | |
Visited dargah of Moinuddin Chisti several times. Married Iranian widow (Mehrunisa), | |
who was given the title Nur Jahan. Nur Jahan’s brother was Asaf khan whose daughter | |
Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu) was married to Shah Jahan. | |
Shah | Sent his two sons Dara Shukoh& Aurangzeb as hostages to his fathers court. He was |
Jahan | helped in his throne capture by his father in law, Asaf Khan. Ordered execution of his |
1628-58 | brothers & their sons after accession. Increased control over Bundelkhand (Ruled by |
Jehangir’s hard core friend Bir Singh Deo’s son Jujhar Singh). Qandhar was capture for a | |
brief period but lost back to the Safavids. His Peacock throne & capital Shahjahanabad are | |
remembered. Reformed the zat & sawar system. Iranis & Turanis dominated the nobility. | |
Instituted month scales on the basis of difference between official estimate of income | |
(Jama) & actual amount collected (hasil). | |
Aurangzeb | War of succession between Dara, Shah Shuja, Auranzeb & Murad – all sons of Mumtaz |
1658-1707 | Mahal. Mir Jumla was deputed by Aurangzeb to restore authority in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa. |
Later in Assam Ahom king agreed to be a vassal of Mughals. He banned Nauroz, the |
Persian new year, banned painters, musicians, drinking & women pilgrimage. Pilgrimage tax on Hindu abolished by Akbar reinstated. Destroyed the Keshava Rai Temple at Mathura built by Bir Singh Bundela.Reimposed Jaziya tax. His son prince Akbar revolted
- was sheltered by Maratha ruler Sambhaji. Aurangzeb lay seize on Bijapur & Golconda
- He was also known as Alamgir.
Shivaji | Shivaji tutor was Dadaji Kond-deva. Shivaji killed Afzal Khan (general of Ali Adil Shah |
II) while meeting. Later he almost defeated the governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan who | |
was replaced by Prince Mauzzam on orders of Aurangzeb. Raja Jai Singh was given the | |
responsibility of tackling Shivaji who won & conducted the treaty of Purandhar. Later | |
Shivaji visited mughal court & was captured but escaped. | |
Later | Shivaji – Sambhaji – Rajaram (Sambhaji’s brother). In the meanwhile Sambhaji’s son |
Marathas | Shahu was taken to the Mughal household. Later when Rajaram died, his widow Tara Bai |
declared her four year old son Shivaji II, king & herself the regent. Later Shahu was | |
released by Bahadur Shah I who appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa. Baji Rao I | |
succeded who was the most charismatic leader in Maratha history after Shivaji.He | |
conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand & even raided Delhi. He was succeded by his son Balaji | |
Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II) | |
who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a terrible blow at | |
the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761 at Panipat. |
Selective Treaties & Battles | ||||||
Treaty of Purandhar | Jai Singh defeated Shivaji. Shivaji had to surrender 23 out of the thirty | |||||
five forts held by him. | ||||||
Treaty of Palkhed | Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to recognize Maratha claimsto chauth | |||||
& sardeshmuhi in the Deccan (durin Baji Rao I’s tenure). | ||||||
Treaty of Warna | Claims of Tara Bai settled by granting her Kolhapur | |||||
Treaty of Bhalke | Marathas won large parts of Khandesh by invading Karnataka. | |||||
Battle of Talikota (1565) | Between Vijayanagara Empire (Rama Raya, son of Achutya Raya) and | |||||
Deccan sultanates, resulted in Vijayanagar’s defeat. | ||||||
Books of Medieval Period | ||||||
1. | Taj-ul-Maasir | Hasan Nizami | ||||
2. | Tabaqat-i-Nasiri | Minhaj Siraj | ||||
3. | Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi (Most important work of sultanate period) | Ziauddin Barani | ||||
Fatwah-i-Jahandari | ||||||
4. | Futuh-us-Salatin (establishment of Bahmani Kingdom) | Isami | ||||
5. | Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi | Afif | ||||
6. | Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi | Yahya Sirhindi | ||||
7. | Akbar Nama | Abul Fazal | ||||
8. | Tabaqat-I-Akbari | Nizammudin Ahmad | ||||
9. | Muntakhab-al-tawarikh | Badauni | ||||
10 | Badshahnama/Padshahnama | Abdul Hamid Lahori | ||||
11 | Muntakhab-ul Lubab (Aurangzeb’s reign) | Khafi Khan | ||||
12 | Mirat-i-Ahmadi | Ali Muhammad Khan | ||||
13 | Padmavat (on Padmini – wife of Ratan Singh, King of Chittor) | Malik Mohammad Jaisi | ||||
14 | Tughluq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa | Amir Khusro | ||||
15 | Marwar ra Pargani ri Vigat (Info on Rajasthan) | Munhta Nainsi |
16 | Chandayan | Maulana Daud |
17 | Himayun Nama | Gulbadan Begum |
18 | Bhavartha Dipika | Gyaneshwara |
19 | Safarnama or Rihla | Ibn Batuta |
20 | Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography) | Jehangir |
21 | Tarikh-i-Shershahi | Abbas Sarwani |
22 | Tuzuk-i-Baburi/ Baburnama (in Turkish –Autobiography) | Babur |
23 | Shahjahannama | Inayat Khan |
24 | Dayabhaga | Jimuta Vahna |
25 | Periya Puranam (12th book of Tamil Veda called Tirumurai) | Shekkilar |
26 | Sur Sagar (Life of Krishna) | Sur Das |
27 | History of Aurangzeb, The fall of the Mughal Empire | Jadunath Sarkar |
28 | Mahmud of Ghazni | Mohammad Habib |
29 | The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate | I.H. Qureshi |
30 | Foundation of Muslim Rule in India | A.B.M. Habibullah |
31 | Agrarian System of Mughal India | Irfan Habib |
Monuments of Medieval Period | |
College of Ajmer (Converted to Adhai din ka Jhompra) | Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva |
Rudra Mahakala temple, Siddhapura | Jayasimha Siddharaja |
Jagannath Temple at Puri | Anantavarman Chodaganga |
Sun Temple, Konark | Narasimha I ( E. Gangas) |
Brihadesvara/Rajarajeswara temple at Thanjavur | Rajaraja the Great |
Quwwat-al-Islam mosque, Delhi | Qutbuddin Aibak |
Adhai din ka Jhompra | Qutbuddin Aibak |
Himayun’s Tomb | Akbar’s step mother Haji Begum |
Tomb of Sher Shah at Sasaram | Sher Shah |
Agra Fort | Akbar |
Buland Darwarza (commemorate Gujarat victory) | Akbar |
Shalimar Garden | Shah Jahan |
Badshahi Mosque at Lahore (largest in subcontinent) | Aurgangzeb |
Man Mandir, Gwalior | Man Singh |
Hauz Khas | Alauddin Khalji |
Akbar’s Mausoleum at Sikandara | Akbar. Completed by Jehangir. |
Madrasa at Bidar | Mahmud Gawan |
Kings & their Court Jewels | ||
1. | Lakshmansena | Jayadeva, Halayudha, Sridharadasa. |
2. | Vikramaditya VI (Chalukya) | Bilhana (Vikramanankadevacharita) Vijnanaeshvara (Mitakshara) |
3. | Sharqis of Jaunpur | Malik Muhammad Jaisi |
4. | Akbar | Tansen, Todar Mal, Tulsidas (just contemporary) |
Prominent Foreign Travellers | |||||||||
1. | Marco Polo | Venetian Traveller visited Pandya kingdom | |||||||
2. | Ibn Batuta | Muhammad bin Tughlaq | |||||||
3. | Nicolo Conti | Italian visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Deva Raya I | |||||||
4. | Abdur Razaq | Visited the court of Zamorin in Calicut & travelled to Vijaynagar | |||||||
during the reign of Deva Raya II | |||||||||
5. | Nikitin | Russian, visited Bahmani kingdom & Gujarat | |||||||
6. | Nuniz | Portuguese, stayed at Vijayanagar during Krishna Deva Raya | |||||||
7. | Ralph Fitch | British during Akbar’s reign | |||||||
8. | William Hawkins | English merchant. Received a mansab from Jehangir | |||||||
9. | Thomas Roe | Ambassador of English King James I to Jehangir’s court. | |||||||
Obtained trade concessions. Wrote “Embassy”. | |||||||||
10. | Peter Mundy | English traveller during Shah Jahan’s reign. | |||||||
11. | Tavernier | French jweller. Aurangzeb’s reign. | |||||||
12. | Bernier | French Physician. Most important account of all European. | |||||||
Aurangzeb’s reign. Wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’. | |||||||||
13. | Nicolo Manucci | Italian. Aurangzeb’s reign. | |||||||
Jargon of Medieval Period | |||||||||
Mamluk | White slaves | Ur | Common village assembly (Chola period) | ||||||
Muqaddam | Village head | Nagaram | Assembly of merchants (Chola period) | ||||||
Sondhar | loans | Sabha | Assembly of Brahmins (Chola period) | ||||||
Khots | Village head | Khutba | A sermon made in Friday mosque | ||||||
Sharia | Muslim law | Madad-i-Maash | Tax free grants of land | ||||||
Subas | Provinces | Waqf | Grants to muslim religious establishment | ||||||
Mir Bakshi | Military department | Pargana | Around Hundred villages. | ||||||
Ummah | Muslim believers | Sadr us sadur | Ecclesiastical affairs | ||||||
Mir Saman | Supply department | Qanungos | Keeper of revenue records | ||||||
Shiqdar | Headed Pargana. | Zabt | Revenue based on land measurement | ||||||
Amils | Revenue officer | Ibadat Khana | House of worship (Fatehpur Sikri) | ||||||
Hundis | Bills of Exchange | Diwan | Function of finance (Akbar’s time) | ||||||
Dhimmis | Non-Muslim people | Wujuhat | Taxes on cattle,grazing,orchards. | ||||||
Vimans | Towers of temple | Shaikhzadas | Indian Muslims nobility | ||||||
Din | Religion | Peshwa | Prime minister (Shivaji) | ||||||
Ganj | A grain market | Amatya | Revenue minister (Shivaji) | ||||||
Gomashta | Commercial agent | Sumant | Foreign minister (Shivaji) | ||||||
Hun | A gold coin | Bargir | Cavalrymen (horse belonged to leader) | ||||||
Dam | Coin (1/4th of rupee) | Nankar | Portion of revenue given to Zamidar | ||||||
Sarkar | A number of Paragana | Diwan-i-Arz | Ministry of Military Affairs | ||||||
Khums | Tax on plunder | Diwan-i-Insha | Ministry of Royal Correspondences | ||||||
Zawabit | Non Shariat state laws | Diwan-i-Risalat | Religiour affairs | ||||||
Faujdar | Incharge of Sarkar | Diwan-i-Kul | Wazir or chief imperial fiscal minister. | ||||||
Malfuzat | Sayings of sufi saint | Diwan-i-Wizarat | Department of finance | ||||||
Tankah | Silver coin | Khalisa | Land revenue directly for imperial treasury | ||||||
Kanqah | Sufi lodging | Wilayat | Spiritual territory of a sufi | ||||||
Misl | Sikh Regions (12) | Umra | Collective term for nobility | ||||||
Watandar | Desais & Deshmukh (collective term) |
Extent of Mughal Empire at Akbar’s Death
Miscellaneous Facts:
1.Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD. The Quran alongwith the Hadith (sayings of the prophet) is venerated as supreme sources of authority in Islam. Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina is known as Hijra & the muslim calendar commences from this year. At the battle of Badr Muhammad first wielded sword to assert his prophethood. Quibla the direction to be faced during prayer changed from Jerusalem to Mecca.
2.Prophet’s son-in-law Ali was regarded as lawful immediate by some section (shiis) while other group considered his close followers Abu Bakr, Umar & Uthman as legal heir (came to be known as Sunnis).
3.Mahmud of Ghazni was the son of Subuktigin (founder of Ghaznavid dynasty). Subuktgin had defeated the Hindhshahi ruler Jaipal. Utbi was the court historian of Ghazni. Mahmud raided 17 times which
included Nagarkot, Mathura, Kanauj & Somanath temple (1025 AD when Chalukya king Bhima I was ruling Gujarat). He patronized Al-Beruni.
4.Muhammad Ghur first invasion was against Multan which he won easily. His invasion of Gujarat ended in a crushing defeat at the hands of the Chalukyan forces. Then followed Battle of Tarain I & II, invasion of Ghadavala ruled by Jaichandra. After Ghur’s death his senior slave Tajuddin Yalduz occupied Ghazni, Qubacha occupied Multan, Ali Mardan took Lakhnauti (Bihar-Bengal) while Aibak took Delhi. At the same time Bhaktiyar Khalji, another slave raided province of Bihar destroying monasteries of Nalanda & Vikramshila & even attacked the Bengal ruler Lakshmanasena. Eastern Chalukyas ruled at Vengi.
5.Chola king Rajendra I captured whole of Sri Lanka & reasserted Chola soverignity over Kerala & Pandyan country. He conquered north upto Ganga & assumed the title of Gangaikonda. Marco Polo visited the Pandyan Kingdom around 1293 AD.
6.Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign saw the rise of two independent states in south – Vijaynagar & Bahamani. The Tungabhadra doab had been a source of conflict between the Cholas & the western Chalukyas, between Yadavas & Hoysalas as well as between the Vijaynagar & the Bahmani Kindom.
7.The largest indigenous industry during the Delhi sultanate period was that of textiles. During Firuz Shah the slaves rose to an all time high. While India’s indigenous architecture is trabeate (space spanned by beams laid horizontally), the Islamic form is arcuate (arches are used to bridge a space).
8.All the Lodi rulers were buried on the Bagh-i-Jud known today as Lodi Garden. The coins of Mahmud Ghazni, Iltutmish, Nasirudin Mahmud, Balban, Alauddin Khalji bear the name of Abbasid Caliph.
- Mansabdars had dual ranks – zat (personal rank & expenses) & sawar (cavalry rank). Land revenue systems were batai (crop divided between state & the peasant), hast-o-bud (official inspection for estimation), kankut system (estimation of land & yield), nasaq system (based on previous estimates).
- The sants of the Vithoba cult & their followers called Varkari emphasized annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur (Mahrashtra). The most important saint was Jnaneshvar. Saguna Bhakti (Tulsi Das, Chaitanya, Surdas, Mirabai, Nimbarka& Vallabha) believed in doctrine of incarnation while Nirguna bhakti (Kabir) worshiped formless aspect of divinity.
- Guru Angad developed the Gurmukhi script. Guru Arjun Dev completed Adi Granth. Guru Hargobind constructed the Akal Takht at the Golden Temple & asked his followers to built the fort of Lohgarh. Enraged Jehangir had the Guru imprisoned for 2 years.
- Of the various Sufi orders in India the Chishti (founder was Moinuddin Chisti) & Suharawadi (Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya whose Khanqah at Multan became an important pilgrimage centre) orders (silsilas)
were the most prominent. Other prominent saints were Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki & Nizamuddin
Auliya. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Naqshbandi order) was contemporary of Jehangir.
- There was no Maratha in Akbar’s nobility & only one in that of Jehangirs. In Aurangzeb’s time the Marathas increased considerably & foreign nobility declined. Dara Shukoh brother of Auranzeb got 52 Upanishads converted into Persian, the collective work being known as the Sirr-i-Akbar. Murshid Quli Khan was a talented revenue officer during the time of Shah Jahan who helped prince Aurangzegb streamline the revenues in Deccan.
- Uprisings during Aurangzeb period were Jats (Gokula, Rajaram, Churaman & Surajmal-the adopted son of Badan Singh), Satnami, Sikhs (Guru Harkishan summoned to Delhi – Bangla Sahib is the site where he resided; Guru Teg Bahadur was beheaded at present Sis Ganj Gurudwara site; Guru Gobind Singh born in Patna), Bundelas of Ochha (under Chhatrasal)
- On Baisakhi day in 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa panth. In the succession that followed after Aurangzeb, Govind Singh supported Bahadur Shah in the hope of getting justice against Wazir Khan (who killed Guru’s son) but all in vain. Gobind Singh appointed Banda Bahadur (later kille Wazir khan) to wage war against the mughals but he failed & was humiliated before being executed.
- Shivaji assumed titles of Chhatrapati, Gobrahmance Pratipalak (protector of cows & Brahmins). His consecration marked the commencement of a new era, the Rajyabhisheka saka.
- Bengal was the main silk centre. Land owner ship was Khudkhasta (Owner & land in the same village), Pahikashta (different village) & Muqarari raiya (He leased his spare land to tenants called muzarin). During mughal period there is no evidence of joint ownership of land. Slave trade focus shifted from Multan to Kabul. Freshly minted coins had a greater value than those minted in previous regimes.
- Thomas Roe went to Jehangirs court to get concessions for operation. Dutch obtained a farman from the Sultan of Golconda to operate at Masulipatnam.
- The Mughal school of painting began with Himayun & reached its pinnacle during Jehangir. Himayun also started the Mina Bazar for royal ladies.
Miscellaneous Facts from Mocks:
- Qutbuddin Aibak was not recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad. Kashmir was never a part of sultanate of Delhi. ‘Janam Sakhis’ are the biographical writings abouth the Sikh gurus. The utterances of Namdev, Kabir, Ravidas, Shaikh Fariduddin Masud (Sufi Saint), Dhanna have been included in Adi Granth. Printing press was introduced in India by the Portuguese.
- The most important system of land revenue was the Zabti system. The term ‘Urs’ referred to the death anniversary of a Sufi saint. The Sisodiyas of Mewar did not submit to Akbar during his reign. Shahjahan did not write his autobiography. Bairagis in India were a Vaishnavite sect.
- Portuguese-Dutch-English-French was the correct sequence of foreigners coming to India. In medieval period Polaj was the most fertile land & banjar the least fertile.
- Bijapur (Adil Shahi Dynasty), Ahmadnagar (Nizamshahi dynasty), Golkonda (Qutbshahi dynasty), Bidar (Barid Shahi dynasty).
- Delhi Sultanate reached its maximum limit during Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Invasion of Chengiz Khan (Iltutmish reign), Invations of Tarmahirin (Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign), Invasion of Nadir Shah (Muhammad Shah) & Invasion of Timur (Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq).
- Mir Syed Ali, Daswant & Khwaja Abdus Samad were famous painters at the court of Himayun & Akbar. Mansur & Bishan Das were leading court painters under Jehangir. The translation of Mahabharata in Persian (Razmnama) was carried out during the reign of Akbar by Faizi. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur s built over the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah.
- The dominant form of decoration employed in the buildings of the sultanate period is called arabesque. Various regional languages of medieval India arose out of Apabhramsa. The pushtimarg was the philosophy of Guru Vallabhacharya (Surdas was his disciple).
- Moinuddin Chisti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Farduddin Masud (Pak Patan, Pakistan) & Khwaja Syed Mudammad Gesu Daraz (Gulbarga) are the famous sufi shrines.
- Krittivasa translated Ramayana into Bengali. Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna & other low cast bhakti saints were belived to be disciples of Ramananda. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda founded the city of Hyderabad. Arabs were not a part of Mughal nobility. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan was a mughal noble & poet under Akbar.
- The sufi silisilas were Suhrawadi, Firdausi, Shattari, Chisti, Qadiri & Naqshbandi. Amer was Jaipur, Marwar (Jodhpur), Mewar (present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand and Udaipur).
Ancient Indian History(Quick Revision)
Pre-Harappan Period
Lower Paleolithic | Hand axe & cleaver industries | Pahalgam, Belan valley (U.P), | ||||||
(600,000 – 60,000 BC) | Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, 16 R Singi Talav | |||||||
Middle Paleolithic | Tools made on flakes | Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri | ||||||
(150,000 – 40,000 BC) | hills of upper sind | |||||||
Upper Paleolithic | Tools made on flakes & blades | Rajasthan, Parts of Belan & Ganga | ||||||
(45,000 – 10,000 BC) | Valley (U.P). | |||||||
Mesolithic/ Microlithic | Parallel sided blades of chert, | Bagor (Raj), Langhnaj (Guj), Sarai | ||||||
(10,000 – 7000 BC) | chalcedony, jasper, agate | Nahar Rai, Chaopani Mando, Mahdaha, | ||||||
Damdama (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh. | ||||||||
Neolithic | Earthern pots | Mehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral & Burzahom | ||||||
(8000 BC – 2000 BC) | (J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando, | |||||||
Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.) Chirand | ||||||||
(Bihar). | ||||||||
Chalcolithic | Distinct painted pottery | Cultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha, | ||||||
(3000-900 B.C.) | Fire worship widespread. | Malwa culture, Salvada culture, , | ||||||
Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture & | ||||||||
Jorwe culture (newest). | ||||||||
Copper Hoard Culture | Harpoons, Antennae swords, | Gungeria (M.P-largest) | ||||||
Anthromorphs | ||||||||
OCP Culture | Pottery with bright red slip & | All over gangetic plain with same | ||||||
(Ochre coloured pottery) | painted in black. | regions as that of copper hoard culture. | ||||||
•Ahar people (Aravalli region) – distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs. | ||||||||
•Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy suface due to which they are called lusturous red ware. | ||||||||
•Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) – painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. | ||||||||
Select Harrapan Cities (Chalcolithic Age) | ||||||||
1. | Harappa | Great granary, 40 % of total seals found here; Seals usually made of steatite | ||||||
[Dayaram Sahni] | depicting elephant, bull, unicorn, rhinoceros; figurines – torso | |||||||
2. | Mohenjodaro | “Mound of the dead”; largest of all cities; Great Bath; granary; city was | ||||||
[R.D Banerjee] | flooded occasionally, figurines of yogi, bronze dancing girl, seal bearing | |||||||
Pashupati. | ||||||||
3. | Lothal | [S.R. Rao]. Earliest cultivation of rice; Fire altars | ||||||
4. | Kalibangan | [A. Ghosh]. Fire Altars showing cult sacrifice; | ||||||
5. | Dholavira, | [R.S. Bisht] | ||||||
6. | Banwali | [R.S. Bisht] Fire Altars; | ||||||
7. | Mehrgarh | Evidences of cotton; |
Indian Religious Books | |
Puranas | Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) & |
vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas. | |
Vedas | Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda |
(magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) & | |
nity | |
Upanishads | About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya & |
Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in | |
sacrificial ceremonies. | |
Brahmanas | Talks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is |
associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda & | |
Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda. | |
Aranyakas | Meaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation & sacrifice. |
Vedangas | Evolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa |
(rituals), Vyakarna, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha. | |
Vedanta | Advaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara. |
Ancient Books & Authors
1. | Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas); | Vishakhadatta |
Devichandraguptam | ||
2. | Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga) | Kalidas |
3. | Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj) | Vakpati |
4. | Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya) | Bilhana |
5. | Kumarapalacharita | Jayasimha |
6. | Hammirakavya | Nyayachandra |
7. | Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana | Hemchandra |
8. | Navashasankacharita | Padmagupta |
9. | Bhojaprabandha | Billal |
10. | Prithvirajcharita | Chandrabardai |
11. | Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam | Kalidas |
Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama); | ||
12. | Mrichakatika | Sudraka |
13. | Uttarama-Charita; Malati Madhava | Bhavbhuti |
14. | Amarakosha | Amarasimha |
15. | Si-yu-Ki | Hiuen Tsang |
16. | Brahmasiddhanta; Khandakhadya | Brahmagupta |
17. | Dasakumaracharita | Dandin |
18. | Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita | Vagabhatta |
19. | Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita | Varahamihira |
20. | Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa; | Rajshekhara |
Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa | ||
21. | Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) | Vardhamana |
22. | Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) | Devachandra |
23. | Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) | Devabhadra |
24. | Prithviraja Vijay | Jayanka |
25. | Karnasundari | Bilhana |
26. | Saraswati Kanthabharana | Bhoja |
27. | Dasharupa | Dhananjaya |
28. | Harikeli Nataka | Visaladeva |
29. | Prasannaraghava | Jayadeva |
30. | Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita & | Bhaskaracharya |
Gola (on Astronomy)] | ||
31. | Rajmariganka (On Astronomy) | King Bhoja |
32. | Chikitsakalika or Yogamala | Tisata-Vagbhatta’s Son |
33. | Mitakasara | Vijnanaeshvara |
34. | Nitishastra (On Polity) | Mathara |
35. | Nitisara (On Polity) | Kamandaka |
36. | Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery) | Sushruta |
37. | Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya) | Charaka |
38. | Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Suandarananda | Asvaghosha |
39. | Mahabhasya | Patanjali |
40. | Harshacharita, Kadambari | Banabhatta |
41. | Ravan Vadha | Bhattin |
Famous Inscriptions
Inscription | King | Aspect | |||||
Junagarh Rock | Rudradaman (Saka) | Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake | |||||
was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of | |||||||
Chandragupta Maurya | |||||||
Allahabad Pillar | Samudragupta | Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena | |||||
Aihole Inscription | Pulakeshin II | Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II. | |||||
Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King. | |||||||
Gwalior Inscription | Bhoja | Most famous Pratihara king. | |||||
Hathigumpha | Kharvela | ||||||
Boghaz koi | Proves Rig Veda to be | Indra, Varuna, Mitra, two Nasatyas mentioned | |||||
[1400 B.C.] | more than 1400 BC old. | ||||||
Nanaghat Inscription | Satkarni I | Achievements of the king | |||||
[Satvahana king] | |||||||
Nasik Inscription | Gautamiputra Satkarni | Achievements of the king. | |||||
Mehrauli Iron Pillar | Chandragupta II | ||||||
Mandsor Inscription | Kumaragupta I | Composed by Vatsabhatti. | |||||
Bhitari Stone pillar | Skandagupta | ||||||
Tiruvalangadu | Rajendra I (Chola) | His conquests (annexed whole of SriLanka) | |||||
Uttaramerur | Cholar Period | Chola village assemblies | |||||
Besnagar Inscription | Near Vidisa (MP). Mentions Heliodorus the ambassador of king Antialcidas | ||||||
called himself Bhagvata & erected garudadhvaja in his honour of Vasudev. | |||||||
Buddhist Councils | |||||||
I Buddhist Council | 500 BC at | Ajatsataru . | Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify | ||||
Rajgaha | Presided by | monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s | |||||
Mahakasyapa | Rajgir | ||||||
II Buddhist Council | 383 BC at | Kalasoka | The conservative schools insisted on monastic | ||||
Vaishali | rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas | ||||||
argued for more relaxed monastic | |||||||
rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas | |||||||
III Buddhist Council | 250 BC | Ashoka.. | Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of | ||||
Pataliputra | Buddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa | ||||||
IV Buddhist Council | 100 AD | Kanishka | Division into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada | ||||
Kashmir | Presided by | Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of | |||||
Vasumitra & | this council, and it is sometimes called the | ||||||
Asvaghosha | “council of heretical monks”. | ||||||
V Buddhist Council | 1871 | King Mindon | recite all the teachings of the Buddha and | ||||
Myanmar | examine them in minute detail to see if any of | ||||||
them had been altered | |||||||
VI Buddhist Council | 1954 | P.M. U Nu | |||||
Yangoon |
Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy | ||||||||||
Charvaka | Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god. | |||||||||
Jaina | The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda. | |||||||||
540 BC | Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said to have flourished 300 yrs | |||||||||
before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara born in Kundagrama near Vaisali. His | ||||||||||
father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka, | ||||||||||
a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’s dauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha. | ||||||||||
Mahavira was married to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42. He accepted | ||||||||||
4 doctrines of Parsava & added celibacy to it. Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passed | ||||||||||
away at Pawapuri. | ||||||||||
Buddha | Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastu to | |||||||||
566 B.C. | Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven days after his birth. | |||||||||
Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a son Rahul. 6 years of meditation | ||||||||||
led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarnath known as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’. | ||||||||||
Eight fold paths. Buddhism denies efficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas. | ||||||||||
Followers were upasakas & bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar. | ||||||||||
Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy | ||||||||||
Vaisesika | Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether. | |||||||||
Nyaya | Accepts all categories of Vaisesika & adds one Abhava (negation). | |||||||||
Samkhya | Oldest of all. Twenty five basic principles first being ‘Prakriti’. Gives | |||||||||
doctrine of 3 qualities – virtue (sattva), passion (rajas) & dullness (tamas) | ||||||||||
Yoga | Salvation through: Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama, | |||||||||
Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana (steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi. | ||||||||||
Mimamsa | Recognises Vedas as final authority. | |||||||||
Vedanta | Adi Sankara is protagonist. Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest | |||||||||
level of truth is that the whole world that exists is Maya. Ramanuja | ||||||||||
(founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his commentaries | ||||||||||
on Upanishads & Gita. | ||||||||||
Forms of Marriage | ||||||||||
1. | Brahma | Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class | ||||||||
2. | Daiva | Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee | ||||||||
3. | Arsa | A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry | ||||||||
4. | Prajapatya | Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price | ||||||||
5. | Gandharva | Love Marriage | ||||||||
6. | Asura | In which bride was bought from her father | ||||||||
7. | Rakshasa | Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors. | ||||||||
8. | Paishacha | Marriage by seduction | ||||||||
Daiva marriage was considered ideal 7 paisacha the worst. |
Dynasties of Ancient Northern India | |||
Dynasty | King | Description | |
Haryanka | Bimbisara* | Founded after overthrowing the Brihadrathas. He also annexed | |
Anga | |||
Ajatasatru | Conquered Lichhavis of Vaisali. Also defeated Prasenajit of | ||
Kosala. Succeded by Udayani who founded Pataliputra. | |||
Sisunga | Sisunga | People elected Sisunga as Udayani & his 3 successors were | |
unworthy | |||
Nanda | Mahapadma | Barber but a great military genius. Defeated many dynasties. | |
Nanda* | |||
Alexander’s | Alexander | Defeated Persian King Darius III & marched to India through | |
Campaign | Khyber pass. King of Taxila offered help. | ||
Mauryas | Chandragupta | Educated by Chanakya at Taxila. ‘Parisistha Parvam’ a jain text | |
Maurya* | describes that he defeated the Nanda king & became ruler of | ||
[324-300 BC] | Magadha empire. Defeated Greek, Selecus who had succeded | ||
Alexander in the eastern part. Selecus sent Megasthenes to his | |||
court. | |||
Bindusara | He appointed his two sons, Sumana at Taxila & Ashoka at Ujjain. | ||
[300-273 BC] | Ptolemy Philadelphous of Egypt sent Dionysius to his court. | ||
Ashoka | Known as devanampiya & piyadasi. Edicts were in Greek & | ||
Aramaic in Afghanistan, Prakrit language & Kharosthi script in | |||
Pakistan. Prakrit language & Brahmi script in other areas. Rock | |||
Edict XIII (Kalinga war) Bhabru Edict (Buddhism as his religion) | |||
VII (all sects desire self control & purity) XII (equal respect to all | |||
religion) II (Dhamma – Common code of conduct). Succeded by 6 | |||
Mauryan kings from Dasaratha to Brihadratha. | |||
Sunga | Pushyamitra | Army chief of Maurya king Brihadratha killed him while he was | |
Sunga | reviewing the army. Succeded by Agnimitra, Jethmitra & | ||
Vasumitra. Last king was Devabhuiti. | |||
Meghavahanas | Kharavela | Hathigumpha inscription on Udaigiri hills near Bhubneshwar | |
refers his achievement till 13th year. Ruled Kalinga. | |||
Satvahanas of | Simuka* | Satvahanas also known as Andhras. Succeeded by Krishna, | |
Deccan | [235-213 BC] | Satkarni I, Satakarni II, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulmavi II, Sri | |
Yajna Satakarni. | |||
Indo Greeks | Menander | Ruled in Pakistan region. Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. | |
Milindapanho is related to their conversation. | |||
Sakas | Nahapana | Sakas also known as Scythians were driven out of their original | |
home land by Yueh Chi who later came to be known as Kushanas. | |||
Nahapana ruled in western India. | |||
Rudradaman | Junagarh Rock Inscription talks about him. He undertook the | ||
130-150 AD | repairs of the Sudarsan dam built by Pushyagupta, governor of | ||
Chandra Gupta Maurya. Ujjaynii was capital. Dynasty came to an | |||
end with the last king being defeated by Chandragupta II in 390 | |||
AD | |||
Kushanas | Kadphises I | Also called Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises I was succeded by his | |
son Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II – devotee of Shiva. | |||
Kanishka | Succeded Kadphises II. Capital of his vast empire was Purushapur | ||
73 – 101 AD | or modern Peshawar. |
The Guptas & Later Period | ||
Guptas | Chandragupta I | Sri Gupta was the first Gupta king followed by Ghatotkacha. |
AD 320 AD | Chadragupta I was Ghatotkacha’s son. | |
Samudragupta | Son of Chandragupta I. Undertook south India campaign. | |
Meghavarna, King of Srilanka sent an embassy to his court to | ||
build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. | ||
Chandragupta II | Son of Samudtragupta & Duttadevi. Married his daughter | |
380-413 AD | Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of Vataka dynasty. Defeated | |
Sakas & took the title of Vikramaditya. | ||
Later Guptas | Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta (Inflicted a crushing defeat on the | |
Hunas; repair of the dam on Sudarsana lake built by chandragupta | ||
maurya & earlier repared by Rudradaman I. | ||
Post Gupta | From the decline of Gupta & the rise of Harsha there flourished four major kingdoms | |
Peiod | in north India: Guptas of Magadha, Maukharis (around Kanauj), Maitrakas | |
(Saurashtra – Vallabhi as capital), Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (Uttaranchal). | ||
Pushyabhuti | Harshavardhana | Son of Prabhakarvardhana of Pushyabhuti of Thaneshwar. Brother |
606 – 647 AD | of Rajyavardhana & Rajyasri (sister married to Maukhari king, | |
Grahavarman of Kanauj, later killed by Sasanka of Gauda). Also | ||
known as Siladitya. Gauda was later divided between him & | ||
Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa. | ||
Deccan & | Vatakas (Deccan) – Vindhyasakti*, *Pravarasena*. Replaced by Chalukyas. | |
South India | Rashtrakutas – Dantidurga I*. They succeded Chalukyas of Badami. | |
Western Gangas (Mysore) – Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja* | ||
Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi – Mayursarman*, *Kakusthavarman* | ||
Pallavas of Kanchipuram – Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman , *Narsimhavarman* | ||
Later Kanauj was ruled by Yashovarman (discussed in Vakpati’s Gaudavaho) | ||
Gurjara | Nagabhatta I* | After Nagabhatta I came Vatsaraja who defeated Dharmapala but |
Pratiharas | was in turn defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Dhramapala | |
taking advantage installed his nominee chakrayudha at Kanauj | ||
Nagabhatta II | Defeated Chakrayudha & captured Kanuaj & defeated | |
Dharmapala. Ramabhadra succeded him | ||
Bhoja | Succeded his father Ramabhadra. Defeated Rashtrakuta king | |
Krishna II. He was devotee of Vishnu & took the title of | ||
Adivaraha. He was followed by great ruler Mahendrapala I | ||
Palas | Gopala* | Elected by people to end Matsyanyaya (internal disorder). Next |
was Dharmapala who installed Chakrayudha at Kanauj but was | ||
defeated by Dhruva. | ||
Devapala | Most mighty pala king. | |
Rashtrakutas | Dantidurga* | Dantidurga was succeded by his uncle Krishna I (built Kailasha) |
Dhruva | Defeated both the Pratihara king Vatsaraja &Pala Dharampala. | |
Was succeded by Govinda III & later Amoghavarsha I. Later | ||
came Indra III (defeated pratihara Mahipala I) & Krishna III | ||
Kamarupa | Bhaskarvarama | Ruled by single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata upto middle |
7th century till Bhaskaravarma (ally of Harsha). Dynasty came to | ||
an end after his death. |
South India | |||||||||||||||
Cholas | Karikala | Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri | |||||||||||||
Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam) | |||||||||||||||
Pandyas | Nedunjeliyan | Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras | |||||||||||||
Cheras | Nedunjeral | Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan & | |||||||||||||
Adan | Sengutturan were the greatest king. | ||||||||||||||
Kings & their Court Jewels | |||||||||||||||
1. | Pushyamitra Sunga | Patanjali | |||||||||||||
2. | Mahendrapala I (Pratihara) | Rajshekhara | |||||||||||||
3. | Kanishka | Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna | |||||||||||||
4. | Chandragupta II | Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira | |||||||||||||
Monuments of Ancient Period | |||||||||||||||
1. | Udaygiri Caves | During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. | |||||||||||||
2. | Angorwatt Temples | Suryavarman Ii | |||||||||||||
3. | Vikramashila University | Pala King Dharampala | |||||||||||||
4. | Kailash Temple (Ellora) | Rashtrakuta king Krishna I | |||||||||||||
5. | Dilwara Temple | Tejapala | |||||||||||||
6. | Rathas of Mamallapuram | Mahendravarman I (Pallava King) | |||||||||||||
7. | Khajuraho temples | Chandelas | |||||||||||||
8. | Martanda temple (Kashmir) | Lalitaditya Muktapida | |||||||||||||
9. | Gommateswara (Son of Rishabnath) | Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla | |||||||||||||
(Sravanbelagola, Karnataka) | |||||||||||||||
10. | Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid) | Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karnataka) | |||||||||||||
Mahajanapadas | |||||||||||||||
Kasi | Varanasi | ||||||||||||||
Kosala | Sravasti | ||||||||||||||
Kuru | Indraprashta | ||||||||||||||
Kamboja | Rajput | ||||||||||||||
Anga | Champa | ||||||||||||||
Avanti | Ujjayini & Mahishmati | ||||||||||||||
Ashmaka | Potana | ||||||||||||||
Malla | Kusinagar & Pawa | ||||||||||||||
Magadha | Rajgriha or Giriraj | ||||||||||||||
Matsya | Virat Nagari | ||||||||||||||
Vajji | Vaisali | ||||||||||||||
Vatsa | Kausambhi | ||||||||||||||
Surasena | Mathura | ||||||||||||||
Panchala | Aichhatra | ||||||||||||||
Chhedi | Shuktimati | ||||||||||||||
Gandhara | Taxila & Pushkalavati | ||||||||||||||
Administrative Units & Their Ancient Names
S | Administrative Part | North India | South India |
1. | Provinces | Bhukti | Mandalam |
2. | Divisions | Vishaya or Bhoga | Kottams or Vallandadu |
3. | District | Adhistana/Pattana | Nadu |
4. | Tehsil | Vihtis | Pattala/Kurram |
Jargon of Ancient Period
Lohit Ayas | Copper | Pradeshika | Head of district Administration |
Syam Ayas | Iron | Nagarka | City administration |
Vanik | Traders | Jesthaka | Chief of a Guild |
Gramini | Village Head | Prathamakulika | Chief of artisans |
Bhagadugha | Tax collector | Uparika | Governor of Bhukti |
Sthapati | Chief Judge | Didishu | Remarried woman |
Takshan | Carpenter | Amatya | High official |
Niska | Unit of currency | Dvija | Initiation into education |
Satamana | Unit of currency | Yukta | Revenue officer in the Mauryan period. |
Pana | Term used for coin | Rajjukas | Land measurement & fixing land revenue |
Shresthi | Guilds | Sabha | Assembly of few select ones |
Vihara | Buddhist Monastery | Samiti | Larger Assembly |
Chaitya | Sacred Enclosure | Dharamamahamatya | Most important post created by Asoka. |
Miscellaneous Facts:
- The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.
- The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.
- Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.
- The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.
- Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.
- Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karnatka).
- The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization. No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.
- Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alternated to left to right & vice versa.
- Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.
- Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).
- The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times
- In the vedic age the varnas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.
- Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.
- During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarnath. Seven rock cut chaitya
caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the
Mauryas.
- The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.
- In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.
- Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varna& female of lower varna) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana &dana.
- Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.
- The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.
- The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarnatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.
- In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints (Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.
- The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.
- The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).
- West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).
- The king of Suvarnadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.
- The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra,
Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama& Saraswati.
- Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.
- Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.
- The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people. The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.
- The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varna system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.
- The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).
- Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.
- The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarnath & the stupa at Sanghot.
The Kushanas: Short introduction
In the early 2nd century BC, a tribe on the Central Asian frontier of China called Hsiung-nu defeated a neighboring one known as Yueh-chih. After more conflict, the survivors of the Yueh-chih were dislocated west, passing down the Ili river valley and along the southern shore of lake Issyk Kul. This movement also pushed Saka tribes (and others) ahead of them. Sometime between 145 and 125 BC, these nomad invaders burst into Bactria and Parthia. A generation later, they were pressing into the Kabul valley and onto the Punjab plain. At around the beginning of the Christian era, one of the five Yueh-chih chiefs, K’iu-tsiu-k’io, attacked and defeated the others, leaving his clan in control; the Kuei-shang (Kushans).
Kujula Kadphises (30-80 AD) established the Kushan dynasty in 78 AD by taking advantage of disunion in existing dynasty of Pahalava (Parthian) and Scytho-Parthians, and gradually wrested control of southern prosperous region, which is the northwest part of ancient India, traditionally known as Gandhara (now Pakistan). It was his grandson Vima Kadphises who made Kushan a paramount power of northern India. His reign saw emergence of Kushan empire when he conquored north-western India (modern Punjab). Soon he came under influence of Hinduism (most likley embraced it for good) and took opportunity to proclaim himself Mahishwara, another name for Lord Shiva, on his coins (Shiva is a prominent Hindu god). Kushan kings introduced gold and copper coins, a large number of them have survived till today. It was the Kushan emperor, Vima Kadaphises who introduced the first gold coins of india. Kushan empire covered north west of India (includes Pakistan and modern Afganistan) and northern India. Ample evidences of trade with China, cental Asia, Egypt and Rome are available which made their economy very strong and kingdom wealthy and prosperous.
Vima’s able son Kanishka (100 – 126 AD) followed and took control of this dynasty in 100 AD. Kanishka is the legendary ruler of ancient India and according to most historians the greatest ruler of Kushan dynasty. He and his descendents called themselves `Devputra’ which means son of god, who ruled Aryavarta, the India. He established an era, commonly known as Shaka era, starts from 78 AD. Shaka era is still in use in India. Kanishka’s empire consisted Bactria (modern Afghanistan), part of central Asia (Tajikistan), north-western India (modern Pakistan) and Northern India till Pataliputra or Patana. Kushan empire.
Huvishka succeeded Kanishka I. He was founder of a city Hushka in Kashmir named after him (described by Kalhan in Rajatarangini). Kushana empire was at its zenith during Kanishka’s and Huvishka’s reign. After Huvishka’s reign, Vasudeva I took control of this dynasty which by then had lost control over regions beyond Bactria or perhaps the Bactria itself. The Kushan dynasty had been totally assimilated in Indian culture. Vasudeva I was the last great king of the dynasty when Kushana empire was at it’s height of splendor and prosperity.
Kushan empire had started its decline soon after Vasudeva’s death. Vasudeva was followed by his son Kanishka II who lost all the territories west of river Indus to Sassanians. Vasudeva II, Vashishka, and Shaka are the kings who followed after the Kanisha II. After Vashishka the Kushan empire had completly disintegrated into few small kingdoms. By fourth century AD this dynasty went into total obscurity with advent of mighty Gupta emperors.
Kanishka:
His Date:
There is a sharp controversy about Kanishka’s date centering round two points:
(1) Whether the Kanishka group preceded or succeeded the Kadphises group, and
(2) Whether Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. or later or earlier.
(1) Cunningham was the first writer to sponsor the theory that Kanishka’s era started from 58 B.C. which came to be known afterwards as Vikrama Samvat: Cunningham, however, gave up this theory later on, but Fleet and after him Kennedy held this view with all earnestness. As a corollary of the above contention it follows that Kanishka group of kings preceded Kadphises group of kings.
But on a careful analysis of the archaeological and numismatic evidences scholars have come to the conclusion that there can be no doubt that the Kanishka group of kings did not precede but followed the Kadphises group of kings.
In support of this view scholars point out if the series of coins issued successively by alien rulers of India upto Vasudeva-I, are carefully studied it will be evident that the coins of the Kadphises kings were issued immediately after those of the Sakas and the Parthians.
Again, the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka, although differ in some details, they seem to be largely prototypes of Wima Kadiphises.
It must also be noted that the practice of issuing bilingual and by scriptural coins introduced by the Indo-Greek kings was continued throughout the Saka-Pahlava period upto the time of Kadphises. The continuity of the practice without break till the time of Wima Kadphises was broken only at the time of Kanishka who gave up the practice of issuing bilingual coins.
The legend of his coins was Greek but most of them were not, however, in Greek. Hurishka and Vasudeva followed the practice of Kanishka. Thus we find that while there was a continuity in the method of the striking coins followed upto Wima Kadphises from the line of the Indo-Greeks a different method was followed and continued by Kanishka and his successors. These two different sequences when compared leave no doubt that the Kushana group followed Kadphises group of kings.
Turning to the second point, we find that scholars like Sir John Marshall, Sten Konow, Vincent Smith, Van Wijk and some other scholars are of the opinion that Kanishka began his rule in the first quarter of the second century A.D., sometime between 125 to 128 A.D. which lasted for about a quarter of a century.
But Ferguson had held long before that Kanishka started his first regional year in 78 A.D. and inaugurated an era from that date which came to be known as the Saka era (Sakabda) which is still current in different parts of India. Ferguson’s view has been supported by scholars like Oldenberg, Thomas, Rapson, R. D. Banerjee, Dr. Raichaudhuri and others. One of the latest scholars to support the view that Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. which was also the beginning of an era is Van Lohuizen-de Leeuw.
It has been argued against the above view held by most of the scholars, that if we agree that Kadphises-I reigned about 50 A.D. and Kanishka about 78 A.D. then we are left with only 28 years roughly for the two reigns of Kadphises-I and Kadphises-II which is a very short span for two reigns. But when we remember that Kadphises died at the age of eighty, his son Kadphises-II must have ascended the throne at pretty old age. This makes accession of Kanishka in 78 AD. quite tenable.
Marshall, Sten Konow and others who are of the opinion that Kanishka ruled in the first quarter of the second century A.D. is- directly against the evidence of Junagarh inscription of Rudradamana. Dr. Raichaudhuri draws our attention to the fact that it is clearly mentioned in the Junagarh inscription that Rudradamana held sway over the lower Sindhu region in the first half of the second century A.D.
The South Bihar (Sui-Bihar) inscription of Kanishka mentions lower Sindhu area as within the dominions of Kanishka. Obviously, both Rudradamana and Kanishka were not rulers over the same region simultaneously. This proves the untenability of the view that Kanishka ruled in the second century A.D. There is also no evidence to show that there was the inauguration of any era in the second century A.D.
Dr. Majumdar’s contention that Kanishka was the founder of Traikutaka-Kalachuri-Chedi era of 248-249 A.D. is absolutely untenable in view of the Chinese evidence that An-Shi-Kao who lived during the second century A.D. translated a work Margabhumi-sutra written by Sangharaksha, chaplain of Kanishka. This precludes placing Kanishka in the third century A.D. as Dr. R. C. Majumdar has done. Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar’s view that Kanishka ascended the throne in 278 A.D. is untenable on the same grounds.
Thus most of the scholars are of the view that Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. which was also the year from which the Saka era is counted.
It has been contended by some scholars that if the era was founded by Kanishka why should it have been named Saka era and not Kushana era, after all the Kushanas were not Sakas. But it may be pointed out that the close association of the Yue-chi people of which the Kushanas were a branch, with the Saka-Pahlava made them a composite people with a composite culture in which the contributions of the Sakas was quite large.
Further, the Kushanas were not Greeks but some of Kanishka’s coins bore Greek legend on them. It is therefore no conclusive argument to say that since the era was called Saka era Kanishka could not be its founder. Likewise the contention that the Saka era was not followed in northern India although Kanishka was a ruler of the north is untenable.
Facts are, however, otherwise. This era was abandoned temporarily during the Gupta rule when it was confined to the south where its use was spread by the Jainas. But with the end of the Gupta rule the Saka era came back into use and Continues to be used even today in different parts of India.
Thus after an analysis of evidences, literary, numismatic as well as epigraphic, the balance of arguments remains in favour of placing the Kanishka group of kings after the Kadphises group of kings and fixing 78 A.D. as the starting point of Kanishka’s rule, and also the beginning of the era known as Saka era or Sakavda.
His Conquests: Extent of His Empire:
Kanishka was alone among the Kushana kings who has left a name cherished by tradition and famous in India as well beyond her limits.
At the time of accession to the throne Kanishka’s empire comprised Afghanistan, large part of Sindhu, portions of Parthia and the Punjab. He appears to have not forgotten to avenge the defeat of his predecessor Kadphises at the hands of the Chinese general Pan-chao. He also played the part of a conqueror in the early years of his reign. Dr. Smith credits him with the conquest and annexation of the Kashmir Valley. He certainly showed, remarks Smith, a marked preference for that delightful country.
Here he erected numerous monuments and founded a town, which although now reduced to a petty village, still bears his honoured name. We have, however, no details about the war with the king of Kashmir. Rajatarangini refers to three kings Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka who are described as decendants of Turuksha ruler and were given to acts of piety and built monasteries, Chaityas and similar other structures.
According to tradition Kanishka penetrated into the interior of India and attacked Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha. It is said that he carried away Asvaghosh, a Buddhist tradition, after the capture of Pataliputra and Buddhist Philosopher Asvaghosa fell into the hands of Kanishka who took the saga with him. Asvaghosa was indeed one of the luminaries that graced the court of Kanishka. We may, therefore, conclude that at least a part of Magadha including Pataliputra was conquered by Kanishka.
Kanishka seems to have waged war against the western Satraps of Ujjaini. Numismatic evidence proves the inclusion of Malwa in his empire. Sylvan Levi, D. C. Sircar and Rapson suggest that the western Satrap Nahapana who ruled over Kathiawar, Malwa and Sourashtra had been a vassal of Kanishka. Some scholars hold that it was Chastana who was defeated by Kanishka and was compelled to hand over a part of Malwa to him.
According to Dr. Smith, Kanishka also waged war against the Parthians. Kanishka also conquered Kashgarh, Khotan and Yarkhand. He is credited with defeating the Chinese and thereby avenging the defeat of his predecessor Kadphises II at the hands of the Chinese general Pan-chao and compelled the Chinese to surrender hostages to him.
From the Chinese source as also from Buddhist traditions we come to know Kanishka conquered Kajangal in the Rajmahal hills in Bengal, some parts of Malda, Murshidabad, Bogra, Midnapur, etc. But in absence of any other evidences to support the indirect evidence furnished by the find spots of the coins of Kanishka it is difficult to come to any definite conclusion with regard to the inclusion of Bengal in Kanishka’s empire.
Kanishka’s empire comprised vast tacts of land extending from Afghanistan, and Khotan, Yarkhand, Kashgarh, etc. in Central Asia to Benares, and perhaps to parts of Bengal. His empire included Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh, Pataliputra, Mathura. Inclusion of Kashmir is borne out by both the Chinese and Buddhist evidences. The western Satrapies seem to have been under his suzerainty.
According to Hiuen TSang Kanishka Raja of Gandhara in old days having subdued all the neighbouring provinces and brought into obedience the people of distant countries, governed by his army a wide territory even to the east of the Tsung-ling mountains. All this proves that Kanishka’s sway extended beyond the borders of India.
The Buddhist tradition and Kanishka’s own inscriptions are ample testimony to the vast expanse of his dominions within India. Selection of Purushapura, i.e. Peshawar, proves that Kanishka’s imperial possessions spread far towards the west and north.
Administration:
Kanishka was a mighty conqueror, but no less was his ability as an administrator and he was even mightier in peaceful pursuits and in his solicitousness of the welfare of the people. For an effective and efficient rule of the empire he resorted to the system of Satrapies and appointed Mahakshatrapa Kharapallana and Kshatrapa Vanaspara in the eastern part of the empire.
The northern part was ruled by General Lala as Mahakshatrapa with Vaspasi and Laika as Kshatrapas. The seat of the Central Government was at Purushpura or Peshawar. This practice of rule through Great Satraps and Satraps was the continuation of the system followed by the Sakas and the Pahlavas.
We find a conscious emulation of the methods of Asoka by the Kushana king Kanishka. He pursued the policy of propagating Buddhism both within India and outside India. It was in connection with his missionary activities that he established close relationship, religious cultural and commercial, not only with China, Tibet and Central Asia but also with Rome and influx of gold from China and Rome in particular. The prosperity of the empire attested by the fine gold coins struck by Kadphises I appears to have increased under Kanishka. The unmistakable influence of Rome on the Indian coinage of the time could be noticed.
From the Periplus we know that gold and silver specie constituted one of the imports of Barygaza, i.e., Borach, a port on the eastern sea board of India. Swell has also mentioned to huge hoard of Roman coins of the first five Roman emperors discovered in the Madras Presidency. The very name dinara of gold coins seems to have close affinity with the Roman denarius and drama for silver coins has been adopted from the Greek drachma.
Kanishka assumed epithet like Shaonaus Shoo, as found on his coins, was an adaptation of the Parthian title Basileos Basileon. From Shaonaus Shoo the letter Shaahan Sha was derived.
Religion:
As it is customary for the Buddhist writers to depict a person wicked before conversion and turned into saint after conversion to Buddhism. Kanishka has been described by them to be devoid of the sense of right or wrong before his conversion. This view of the Buddhist writers has not been accepted by most of the scholars who think that it is an attempt on the part of the Buddhist writers to glorify Buddhism.
Before conversion to Buddhism Kanishka was a believer in many gods, Persian, Greek, Hindu, etc. This is proved by the figures imprinted on his coins. The exact date of conversion of Kanishka is, however, not known. The conversion is supposed to have taken place after some years he had been on the throne. It is supposed that after his association with the Buddhist philosopher and Saint Asvaghosha, he must have come under his influence.
Asvaghosha must have won the heart of Kanishka so completely that the latter gave up his allegiance to his previous gods and got converted to Buddhism. Here is a second instance of a great conqueror and emperor being converted to Buddhism and taken to the policy of peace and brotherliness in place of the policy of military conquests.
Kanishka was a close copy of Asoka. What is specially noteworthy about Kanishka is that he was the only foreigner who became a convert to an Indian religion and turned into zealous missionary. In his missionary activities we find him to an emulator of Asoka whose footsteps he tried to follow closely.
We renovated the old monasteries which were in a state of disrepair and built many a new one. He endowed the monasteries with liberal money grants for the maintenance of the monks who dwelt in them. Kanishka caused the construction of a number of stupas in the memory of Sakyamuni.
He also sent missionaries for the propagation of Buddhism to China, Tibet, Japan and Central Asia. The sculptors, painters, as well as the architects of his time also became active propagandists of Buddhism. The celebrated Chaitya it Peshawar constructed under his orders excited the wonder and appreciation of travellers down to a late period and famous sculptures therein included a life-size statue of himself.
During his time there arose disputes about Buddhism, among 18 schools of Buddhism prevalent at that time, as we know from the Tibetan historian Taranath. It became necessary to restore the disputes and to that end Kanishka convoked the Fourth Buddhist Council to which was attended by 500 monks.
There is a controversy with regard to the venue of the Council. According to some it was held at Kundavana in Kashmir but others hold that it met at Jullundur in the Punjab. In the Council the entire Buddhist literature was thoroughly examined and commentaries on the three Pitakas were prepared, which were compiled in Mahavibhasha which is the greatest work on Buddhist Philosophy.
This voluminous work is considered to be the encyclopaedia of Buddhism. The decisions of the Council were inscribed in copper plates and deposited in a stupa built for the purpose, packed in stone chests. Vasumitra acted as the President and Asvaghosha as the Vice-President of the Council.
Buddhist Council:
The period of Kanishka saw the transformation of the Hinayana form of Buddhism into Mahayana form. In the Hinayana form the worship of Buddha was only by relics like footprint of Buddha, an empty seat of Buddha, that is, some sort of symbol used to be placed in front of the worshipper.
There used to be no figure or image of Buddha to worship. This needed great concentration of mind on the part of the worshipper and the method was very subtle and could be followed by persons of great self-control, and of deepest religious bent of mind. This method of proceeding along the Path of Buddhist religion was called Hina-Yana, i.e., lesser vehicle, i.e., subtle mode of transport in the path of religion.
But during Kanishka’s time worship of the image of Buddha came into use. It became easy to concentrate by keeping as visible representation of Buddha in form. This was a greater and easier method hence called Mahayana Buddhism. In the Hinayana form of worship emphasis was laid on good action but in Mahayana system worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas was emphasised. The use of Pali as the language of the Buddhist religious books was now replaced by Sanskrit.
Art and Learning:
Kanishka’s patronage of art and learning marked the beginning of a cultural renaissance which was to reach its peak and flower under the Guptas A large volume of Sanskrit literary works both religious and secular, was produced during the period. Asvaghosha, the greatest Buddha Philosopher, saint and literary figure of the time adorned the court of Kanishka.
He was a versatile genius whose contributions to the cultural life of the time centred round poetry, philosophy, drama, music. Buddhacharit and Sutralankar are his two most famous works. Buddhacharit on the life of Gautama Buddha in Sanskrit verse has been regarded as a Buddhist epic. Another great Buddhist writer of fame who adorned the court of Kanishka was Nagarjuna. He was the greatest exponent of Mahayana Buddhism.
Charaka, the celebrated master of the science of medicine, was the court physician of Kanishka. Mathara, a politician of great acumen, was a minister of Kanishka. Besides these worthies, the Greek engineer Agesilaus and many others played a leading part in the religious, literary, scientific, philosophical and artistic activities of the reign. It is of great interest to know that Nagarjuna in his celebrated work Madhyamikasutra expounded the theory of relativity in its preliminary form.
Another celebrity that adorned the court of Kanishka was Vasumitra who presided over the Fourth Buddhist Council held during the reign of Kanishka.
Kanishka was also a great builder and a patron of art and architecture. The works of architecture, art of sculpture of his time are found in Mathura, Peshawar, Taxila and Amaravati. The Sirsukh city in Taxila with its hall, buildings and monasteries was built by him. Statues, sculptures, monasteries added to the beauty of the city.
The Gatidhara School of art was the product of Graeco-Roman-Buddhist school of art and sculpture. Totally indigenous art also flourished during his reign at Amaravati. The ornamental sculpture depicted in the Amaravati medallion bear testimony to the excellence of purely Indian style uninfluenced by any foreign art. At Mathura find of Kanishka’s headless statue is an example of the massive sculptural art of the time.
Estimate of Kanishka:
Kanishka happens to be one of the few kings in history who came in as a conqueror and won an empire but was conquered by the religion, language and culture of the country of his conquest. He was an intrepid warrior, a mighty conqueror but what was more he was equally great as an administrator. If he was great in war and administration he was greater still in the arts of peace.
He was a great patron of art and literature. He built a vast empire which extended from Central Asia to Mathura, Benares and probably to parts of Bengal but he gave it an administration which brought peace and prosperity to the country and the people, which conduced to pursuit of religion, art, architecture and literature. Before his conversion to Buddhism he was eclectic in his religious belief and was a polytheist.
After becoming a Buddhist he became an ardent missionary of the Mahayanism. He rendered a great service to Buddhism by convening the Fourth Buddhist Council which resolved the disputes that arose among the Buddhists about Buddhist religion. He was a great patron of Buddhism as his predecessor of the Maurya Dynasty Asoka. Like Asoka he sent missions for propagation of Buddhism in China, Japan, Tibet, Central Asia, etc.
He patronized the Buddhist philosophers like Asvaghosha, Basumitra, Nagarjuna, Political scientist like Mathara, medical scientist like Charaka, and engineer like Greek Agesilaus.
He was a great patron of art and architecture. The city of Purushapura, his capital, Taxila, Mathura were beautified by monasteries, stupas, etc. The tall Chaitya at his capital with its sculpture forced the admiration of visitors even after long time.
The beneficence of his rule was seem in the prosperity of the people resulting from the influx of huge quantity of gold by way of trade with foreign countries like China, Rome, etc.
Kanishka has been likened to Asoka as a conqueror, preacher. But although he was definitely a lesser personality than Great Asoka, he was the nearest emulator of Asoka in his spirit of toleration of other religions, patronage of Buddhism, and missionary zeal. He, however, was not an apostle of non-violence as Asoka had been yet he had initiated a cultural renaissance which reached its zenith under the Guptas.
Kanishka’s reign constituted a brilliant epoch in the history of ancient India and the darkness that descended on the Indian History after the fall of the Mauryas was lifted during his reign. Kanishka rightly deserves a place among the best rulers of the ancient history of India.
Art, Sculpture and Architecture in Kushana Empire
The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable development in art, sculpture and architecture. The Gandhara School of Art and Sculpture marked a happy blending of the Graceo-Romano-Buddhist style and techniques. The distinguishing features of the Gandhara Sculpture owed their origin to Greek and Roman styles yet the art essentially was Indian in spirit. The Gandhara artists had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an India.
The most remarkable contribution of the Gandhara School of art is to be seen in the evolution of the image of Buddha, perhaps in imitation of the Greek God Apollo. Images of Buddha and Bodhisatva illustrating the past and present lives of Buddha were executed in black stone. The figures show an excellent idea of human anatomy that swayed the artists.
These works of art offer a striking contrast to similar art that we witness elsewhere in India. The smooth round features of the idealised human figures, draped in transparent and semi-transparent cloth closely fitting to the body and revealing its outline were due to the influence of the Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and the Roman Empire.
The images of Buddha pertaining to the Gandhara school centres of which were Gandhara, Jalalabad, Hadda and Baniyan in Afghanistan, Peshawar and Swat Valley, were more animated and anatomically perfect than those found in other parts of India. While the former are more beautiful physically and accurate in anatomical details as such more realistic, the Indian art and sculpture which produced the images of Buddha were more idealistic giving a spiritual and sublime expression to the images.
The technique of the Gandhara School of art of the Kushana period spread through China to the Far East and influenced the art of China and Japan. The Gandhara art, according to V. A. Smith, was based on the cosmopolitan art of the Asia Minor and the Roman Empire.
There were also purely Indian schools of art in India during the period of the Kushanas. There were the schools of art at Amaravati, Jagayyapeta and Nagarjunikonda. In the Amaravati human figures are characterised by slim, blithe features and have been represented in most difficult poses and curves. The technique of art reached a high standard of development. Plants and flowers, particularly lotuses, have been represented in the most perfect, lifelike manner.
Two Chaityas and a Stupa discovered at Nagarjunikonda are the relics of the indigenous school of art and show a high standard of development. The limestone panel of figures depicting the nativity of Buddha is an excellent piece of sculpture of the Kushana period which was entirely indigenous.
Architecture of the Kushana period was not so remarkable as the sculpture of the period. There were beautiful temples, monasteries, Stupas which indicate considerable development during the period although the technique of architecture did not attain the standard of excellence of sculpture. The famous tower of Kanishka at Purushapura (Peshawar) was one of the wonders of the world. Much of the architectural specimens of the period perished with time.
Caves hewn in solid rock with pillars and sculptures, hundreds of which have been found in different parts of the Kushana Empire show a great improvement upon the technique of excavation that was in use during the time of Asoka. A Chaitya with rows of columns on two sides was a fine work of art of sculpture and architecture. The Chaitya at Karle is an excellent illustration.
Fa-hien who visited India during the rule of Chandragupta II {5th century) was struck with wonder to find a large number of Stupas, dagobas (small stupa), Chaityas and images of Buddha carved out of stone during the Kushana period.
There has been a sharp difference of opinion about the celebrity, and the extent of influence of the Gandhara art upon the Indian art during the reign of the Kushanas. Modern scholars think that the Gandhara School of sculpture has attained a celebrity perhaps beyond its merits.
According to some European scholars, the Gandhara School of art was the only school in Ancient India which can claim a place in the domain of art. There are others who are of the opinion that the source of subsequent development of Indian art as well as of the Far East was the Gandhara School of art which developed as a result of a happy blending of the Graco-Romano-Buddhist art.
But despite the foreign influence upon the school of Gandhara art, scholars like Havell, Will Durant, R. C. Majumdar and others are of the opinion that the influence, Hellenistic and Roman, upon the Indian art which was the Gandhara School of art was technical but spirit and the subject matter of the art was purely Indian.
- D. Banerjee’s view that the Gandhara art influenced the Indian art for nearly five centuries to follow is untenable on the ground that there were indigenous schools of art at Ainaravati, Nagarjunkonda, etc. where there was no influence of Gandhara School of art. The influence of the Gandhara art failed to penetrate into the interior of India and had no influence on the later development of the Indian, art. But the Gandhara School of art achieved a grand success in. becoming the parent of the Buddhist art of Eastern and Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan.
Literature:
The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable development of literature and Sanskrit language. Under the patronage enjoyed by the scholars and Buddhist philosophers of the time a massive development in secular and religious literature took place. A large number of standard works in Sanskrit language were written during the period.
Asvaghosha’s Buddhacharita, Saudarananda Kavya, Vajrasuchi, Sariputta Prakarana, Vasumitra’s Mahabibhasa—regarded as the Buddhist encyclopaedia, Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika-Sutra in which the theory of relativity was propounded, Charaka’s work on medicine, etc. contributed to the fund of human knowledge. Under the Kushanas the royal court became a seat of luminaries mentioned above as also of the Political Scientist Mathara, Greek engineer Agesilaus, etc.
Art, Sculpture and Architecture in Kushana Empire
The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable development in art, sculpture and architecture. The Gandhara School of Art and Sculpture marked a happy blending of the Graceo-Romano-Buddhist style and techniques. The distinguishing features of the Gandhara Sculpture owed their origin to Greek and Roman styles yet the art essentially was Indian in spirit. The Gandhara artists had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an India.
The most remarkable contribution of the Gandhara School of art is to be seen in the evolution of the image of Buddha, perhaps in imitation of the Greek God Apollo. Images of Buddha and Bodhisatva illustrating the past and present lives of Buddha were executed in black stone. The figures show an excellent idea of human anatomy that swayed the artists.
These works of art offer a striking contrast to similar art that we witness elsewhere in India. The smooth round features of the idealised human figures, draped in transparent and semi-transparent cloth closely fitting to the body and revealing its outline were due to the influence of the Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and the Roman Empire.
The images of Buddha pertaining to the Gandhara school centres of which were Gandhara, Jalalabad, Hadda and Baniyan in Afghanistan, Peshawar and Swat Valley, were more animated and anatomically perfect than those found in other parts of India. While the former are more beautiful physically and accurate in anatomical details as such more realistic, the Indian art and sculpture which produced the images of Buddha were more idealistic giving a spiritual and sublime expression to the images.
The technique of the Gandhara School of art of the Kushana period spread through China to the Far East and influenced the art of China and Japan. The Gandhara art, according to V. A. Smith, was based on the cosmopolitan art of the Asia Minor and the Roman Empire.
There were also purely Indian schools of art in India during the period of the Kushanas. There were the schools of art at Amaravati, Jagayyapeta and Nagarjunikonda. In the Amaravati human figures are characterised by slim, blithe features and have been represented in most difficult poses and curves. The technique of art reached a high standard of development. Plants and flowers, particularly lotuses, have been represented in the most perfect, lifelike manner.
Two Chaityas and a Stupa discovered at Nagarjunikonda are the relics of the indigenous school of art and show a high standard of development. The limestone panel of figures depicting the nativity of Buddha is an excellent piece of sculpture of the Kushana period which was entirely indigenous.
Architecture of the Kushana period was not so remarkable as the sculpture of the period. There were beautiful temples, monasteries, Stupas which indicate considerable development during the period although the technique of architecture did not attain the standard of excellence of sculpture. The famous tower of Kanishka at Purushapura (Peshawar) was one of the wonders of the world. Much of the architectural specimens of the period perished with time.
Caves hewn in solid rock with pillars and sculptures, hundreds of which have been found in different parts of the Kushana Empire show a great improvement upon the technique of excavation that was in use during the time of Asoka. A Chaitya with rows of columns on two sides was a fine work of art of sculpture and architecture. The Chaitya at Karle is an excellent illustration.
Fa-hien who visited India during the rule of Chandragupta II {5th century) was struck with wonder to find a large number of Stupas, dagobas (small stupa), Chaityas and images of Buddha carved out of stone during the Kushana period.
There has been a sharp difference of opinion about the celebrity, and the extent of influence of the Gandhara art upon the Indian art during the reign of the Kushanas. Modern scholars think that the Gandhara School of sculpture has attained a celebrity perhaps beyond its merits.
According to some European scholars, the Gandhara School of art was the only school in Ancient India which can claim a place in the domain of art. There are others who are of the opinion that the source of subsequent development of Indian art as well as of the Far East was the Gandhara School of art which developed as a result of a happy blending of the Graco-Romano-Buddhist art.
But despite the foreign influence upon the school of Gandhara art, scholars like Havell, Will Durant, R. C. Majumdar and others are of the opinion that the influence, Hellenistic and Roman, upon the Indian art which was the Gandhara School of art was technical but spirit and the subject matter of the art was purely Indian.
- D. Banerjee’s view that the Gandhara art influenced the Indian art for nearly five centuries to follow is untenable on the ground that there were indigenous schools of art at Ainaravati, Nagarjunkonda, etc. where there was no influence of Gandhara School of art. The influence of the Gandhara art failed to penetrate into the interior of India and had no influence on the later development of the Indian, art. But the Gandhara School of art achieved a grand success in. becoming the parent of the Buddhist art of Eastern and Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan.
Literature:
The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable development of literature and Sanskrit language. Under the patronage enjoyed by the scholars and Buddhist philosophers of the time a massive development in secular and religious literature took place. A large number of standard works in Sanskrit language were written during the period.
Asvaghosha’s Buddhacharita, Saudarananda Kavya, Vajrasuchi, Sariputta Prakarana, Vasumitra’s Mahabibhasa—regarded as the Buddhist encyclopaedia, Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika-Sutra in which the theory of relativity was propounded, Charaka’s work on medicine, etc. contributed to the fund of human knowledge. Under the Kushanas the royal court became a seat of luminaries mentioned above as also of the Political Scientist Mathara, Greek engineer Agesilaus, etc.
The Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy. Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE) started a rapid expansion of the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It marked the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas. Even more importantly, it began a period of overall prosperity and growth that continued for the next two and half centuries which came to be known as a “Golden Age” in India’s history. But the seed of the empire was sown at least two generations earlier than this when Srigupta, then only a regional monarch, set off the glory days of this mighty dynasty in circa 240 CE.
GUPTA PERIOD – EARLY DAYS TO THE ZENITH
Not much is known about the early days of this Gupta dynasty. The travel diaries and writings of Buddhist monks who frequented this part of the world are the most trustworthy sources of information we have about those days. The travelogues of Fa Hien (Faxian, circa 337 – 422 CE), Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang, 602 – 664 CE) and Yijing (I Tsing, 635 – 713 CE) prove to be invaluable in this respect. The Gupta Empire during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 – 280 CE) comprised only Magadha and probably a part of Bengal too. Like the Mauryas and other Magadha kings who preceded him, Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, close to modern day Patna. Srigupta was succeeded to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha (circa 280 – 319 CE).
CHANDRAGUPTA I
From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned the benefit of maintaining a cavalry and Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha, made effective use of his strong army. Through his marriage with Licchhavi Princess Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the ownership of rich mines full of iron ore adjacent to his kingdom. Metallurgy was already at an advanced stage and forged iron was not only used to meet the internal demands, but also became a valuable trade commodity. The territorial heads ruling over various parts of India could not counter the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and had to surrender before him. It is conjectured that at the end of his reign, the boundary of the Gupta Empire already extended to Allahabad.
SAMUDRAGUPTA
Samudragupta (circa 335 – 375 CE), Chandragupta I’s son who ascended the throne next, was a military genius and he continued the growth of the kingdom. After conquering the remainder of North India, Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India and added a portion of it to his empire by the end of his Southern Campaign. It is generally believed that during his time the Gupta Empire spanned from the Himalayas in north to the mouth of Krishna and Godavari rivers in the South, from Balkh, Afghanistan in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east.
Samudragupta was very attentive to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special care to follow Kautilya’s (350 – 275 BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and political treatise that has clear instructions about how a monarchy should be governed) closely. He donated large sums of money for various philanthropic purposes, including the promotion of education. Besides being a courageous king and able administrator, he was a poet and musician. The large number of gold coins circulated by him showcases his multifaceted talent. An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar is most eloquent about his humane qualities. Samudragupta also believed in promoting goodwill among various religious communities. He gave, for example, Meghavarna, king of Ceylon, permission and support for the construction of a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
CHANDRAGUPTA II
A short struggle for power appears to have ensued after the reign of Samudragupta. His eldest son Ramagupta became the next Gupta king. This was noted by 7th century CE Sanskrit author Banbhatta in his biographical work, Harshacharita. What followed next forms a part of Sanskrit poet and playwright Visakh Dutta’s drama DeviChandra Guptam. As the story goes, Ramagupta was soon overcome by a Scythian king of Mathura. But the Scythian king, besides the kingdom itself, was interested in Queen Dhruvadevi who was also a renowned scholar. To maintain peace Ramagupta gave up Dhruvadevi to his opponent. It is then Ramagupta’s younger brother Chandragupta II with a few of his close aides went to meet the enemy in disguise. He rescued Dhruvadevi and assassinated the Scythian king. Dhruvadevi publicly condemned her husband for his behaviour. Eventually, Ramagupta was killed by Chandragupta II who also married Dhruvadevi sometime later.
Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa 380 – 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able leader and skilled administrator. By defeating the satrap of Saurashtra, he further expanded his kingdom to the coastline of the Arabian Sea. His courageous pursuits earned him the title of Vikramaditya. To rule the vast empire more efficiently, Chandragupta II founded his second capital in Ujjain. He also took care to strengthen the navy. The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara consequently became busy hubs of maritime trade. He was a great patron of art and culture too. Some of the greatest scholars of the day including the navaratna (nine gems) graced his court. Numerous charitable institutions, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his generosity. Rest houses for travellers were set up by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle during this time and unprecedented progress marked all areas of life.
POLITICS & ADMINISTRATION
Great tact and foresight were shown in the governance of the vast empire. The efficiency of their martial system was well known. The large kingdom was divided into smaller pradesha (provinces) and administrative heads were appointed to take care of them. The kings maintained discipline and transparency in the bureaucratic process. Criminal law was mild, capital punishment was unheard of and judicial torture was not practised. Fa Hien called the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra as picturesque with the latter being described as a city of flowers. People could move around freely. Law and order reigned and, according to Fa Hien, incidents of theft and burglary were rare.
The following also speaks volumes about the prudence of the Gupta kings. Samudragupta acquired a far greater part of southern India than he cared to incorporate into his empire. Therefore, in quite a few cases, he returned the kingdom to the original kings and was satisfied only with collecting taxes from them. He reckoned that the great distance between that part of the country and his capital Pataliputra would hinder the process of good governance.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
People led a simple life. Commodities were affordable and all round prosperity ensured that their requirements were met easily. They preferred vegetarianism and shunned alcoholic beverages. Gold and silver coins were issued in great numbers which is a general indicative of the health of the economy. Trade and commerce flourished both within the country and outside. Silk, cotton, spices, medicine, priceless gemstones, pearl, precious metal and steel were exported by sea. Highly evolved steelcraft led everyone to a belief that Indian iron was not subject to corrosion. The 7 m (23 ft) high Iron Pillar in Qutub complex, Delhi, built around 402 CE, is a testimony to this fact. Trade relations with Middle East improved. Ivory, tortoise shell etc. from Africa, silk and some medicinal plants from China and the Far East were high on the list of imports. Food, grain, spices, salt, gems and gold bullion were primary commodities of inland trade.
RELIGION
Gupta kings knew that the well-being of the empire lie in maintaining a cordial relationship between the various communities. They were devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the Supreme Creator as Vishnu) themselves, yet that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist monasteries received liberal donations. Yijing observed how the Gupta kings erected inns and rest houses for Buddhist monks and other pilgrims. As a pre-eminent site of education and cultural exchange Nalanda prospered under their patronage. Jainism flourished in northern Bengal, Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and Gujarat. Several Jain establishments existed across the empire and Jain councils were a regular occurrence.
LITERATURE, SCIENCES & EDUCATION
Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights than before. Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba. Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti, Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma penned Panchatantra. Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and science.
Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology. Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of geometry, trigonometry and cosmology. Shanku devoted himself to creating texts about Geography. Dhanvantri’s discoveries helped the Indian medicinal system of ayurveda become more refined and efficient. Doctors were skilled in surgical practices and inoculation against contagious diseases was performed. Even today, Dhanvantri’s birth anniversary is celebrated on Dhanteras, two days before Diwali. This intellectual surge was not confined to the courts or among the royalty. People were encouraged to learn the nuances of Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual debate, music and painting. Several educational institutions were set up and the existing ones received continuous support.
ART, ARCHITECTURE & CULTURE
What philosopher and historian Ananda Coomaraswamy said in The Arts & Crafts of India & Ceylone, about the art of the region must be remembered here,
The Hindus do not regard the religious, aesthetic, and scientific standpoints as necessarily conflicting, and in all their finest work, whether musical, literary, or plastic, these points of view, nowadays so sharply distinguished, are inseparably united.
The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya. The basic tenets of Shilpa Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were followed everywhere including in town planning. Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice the size of Delhi’s Iron Pillar), intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of the metalsmiths. Carved ivories, wood and lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile also thrived. Practicing vocal music, dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena (an Indian musical stringed instrument), flute and mridangam (drum) were a norm rather than exception. These were regularly performed in temples as a token of devotion. In classic Indian style, artists and litterateurs were encouraged to meditate on the imagery within and capture its essence in their creations. As Agni Purana suggests, “O thou Lord of all gods, teach me in dreams how to carry out all the work I have in my mind.”
DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
After the demise of his father Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I (circa 415 – 455 CE) ruled over the vast empire with skill and ability. He was able to maintain peace and even fend off strong challenges from a tribe known as Pushyamitra. He was helped by his able son Skandagupta (455 – 467 CE) who was the last of the sovereign rulers of the Gupta Dynasty. He also succeeded in preventing the invasion of the Huns (Hephthalites). Skandagupta was a great scholar and wise ruler. For the well being of the denizens he carried out several construction works including the rebuilding of a dam on Sudarshan Lake, Gujarat. But these were the last of the glory days of the empire.
After Skandagupta’s death the dynasty became embroiled with domestic conflicts. The rulers lacked the capabilities of the earlier emperors to rule over such a large kingdom. This resulted in a decline in law and order. They were continuously plagued by the attacks of the Huns and other foreign powers. This put a dent in the economic well-being of the empire. On top of this, the kings remained more occupied with self-indulgence than in preparing to meet with the challenges of their enemies. The inept ministers and administrative heads also followed suit. Notably, after the defeat and capture of Mihirakula, one of the most important Hephthalite emperors of the time, Gupta King Baladitya set him free on the advice of his ministers. The Huns came back to haunt the empire later and finally drew the curtains on this illustrious empire in circa 550. The following lines of King Sudraka’s Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) aptly sum up the rise and fall in the fortune of the Gupta Dynasty.