National Income

The study of National Income is important because of the following reasons:

• To see the economic development of the country.
• To assess the developmental objectives.
• To know the contribution of the various sectors to National Income.

Internationally some countries are wealthy, some countries are not wealthy and some countries are in-between. Under such circumstances, it would be difficult to evaluate the performance of an economy. Performance of an economy is directly proportionate to the amount of goods and services produced in an economy. Measuring national income is also important to chalk out the future course of the economy. It also broadly indicates people’s standard of living.

Income can be measured by Gross National Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Income (GNI), Net National Product (NNP) and Net National Income (NNI).

In India the Central Statistical Organization has been formulating national income.

However some economists have felt that GNP has a measure of national income has limitation, since they exclude poverty, literacy, public health, gender equity and other measures of human prosperity.

Instead they formulated other measures of welfare like Human Development Index (HDI).

 

NATIONAL INCOME:

The National income measures the flow of goods and services in an economy.

Note: The National income measured only on flow and not on stock.

 

The National income measures of net volume of goods and services produced in a country during a year. It also includes net earned foreign income. The National Income is counted without duplication.

The National income measures the productive power of an economy (flow).

The National wealth measures the stock of commodities held by the nationals of a country at a given point of time.

The National income estimates are in relation with the financial year.

In India the financial year begins on April 1 and ends on March 31.

 

BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

No specific attempts were made.The 1^st attempt was made by Dada Bhai Naoroji (Grand Old Man of India) in the   year 1868 in his book ‘Poverty and Un British Rule in India’.He estimated that the per capita annual income as Rs. 20 per annum.

Other estimators William Digby in the year 1899, Findlay Shirras in 1911, 1922     and in 1933, Shah and Khambatta in 1921, V K R V Rao during 1925-29 and 1931-32 and R C Desai during 1931-40.

The above people estimated the national income with the value of the output of the agriculture sector and then added a certain percentage as the income of the non-agriculture sector.The estimates suffered with serious limitations.

 

AFTER INDEPENDENCE:

In August 1949 the Government of India appointed the National Income Committee. Prof. P C Mahalanobis was appointed as the chairman of the National Income Committee.The other 2 members of the committee were Prof D. R Gadgil and Prof V K R V Rao.The main job of the committee was to compile estimates of National Income.The 1^st report was submitted in the year 1951.The final report was submitted in the year 1954.

This report is considered to be a landmark in the history of India as this is the first time that it provided a comprehensive data of National Income for the whole India.

The government established the CSO (Central Statistical Organization) for further estimation of the National income.The CSO regularly publishes the national income.

 

CONCEPT (THEORY) OF THE NATIONAL INCOME:

GNP (Gross National Product)

GDP (Gross Domestic Product)

NNP (Net National Product)

NI (National Income)

PI (Personal Income)

DPI (Disposable Personal Income)

Now let us try to understand the meaning of each:

 

GDP (GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT):

 

The Gross Domestic Product is the money value of all the goods and services produced within the geographical boundaries of a country in a given period of time.

Note: the GDP is only within the country.

 

GNP (Gross National Product):

 

The GNP is the money value of the goods and services produced by a country in a given period of time Plus Total money value of goods and services produced by the nationals outside the country Minus Incomes received by the foreigners with in the country.

Note: The GNP is calculated on the basis of market prices of produced goods, it also includes indirect taxes and subsidies if any.

The GNP is equal to GDP if the income earned and received by the citizens of a country within the boundaries of foreign countries is equal to the income received by the foreigners within the country.

 

NNP (NET NATIONAL PRODUCT):

This is GNP minus depreciation.

NNP = GNP – Depreciation

Note: Depreciation is the consumption of capital stock

 

NI (NATIONAL INCOME):

The National income is also called Net National Product at factor cost. Hence,

NI = NNP minus (total indirect taxes + Subsidies)

Note: Both indirect taxes and subsidies are deducted from the NNP.

 

PI (PERSONAL INCOME):

This is actual income obtained by the people after deducting various taxes.

PI = National Income – (Corporate taxes + payments made for social security) +Government transfer payments+Business transfer payments+Net interest paid by the government.

 

DPI (Disposable personal Income):

This is the Personal income minus direct taxes.

DPI = PI – Direct taxes.

 

HOW THE NATIONAL INCOME IS MEASURED?

 

There a 3 methods to calculate the National income.These methods are given by Simon Kuznets.

• PM (Product Method) or Product service method.
• IM (Income Method)
• CM (Consumption Method) or expenditure method.

In India the combination of Product method and Income methods is used for calculating the National Income.

 

PRODUCT METHOD:

NI = GDP  – income earned in foreign countries – Depreciation.

In the Product method the GDP is taken into consideration.Net income earned in foreign countries is deducted from the GDP.From this the depreciation is subtracted.

 

INCOME METHOD:

In this method the National Income is calculated by

National Income = Total Rent Plus (+) Total wages Plus (+) Total Interest Plus (+) Total Profit.

The total net income of the people working in different sectors and commercial sectors are taken into consideration.

 

Consumption Method:

This method is not generally used for calculating the National income.According to this method

• National Income =Total Consumption Plus Total Savings

 

MISCELLANEOUS:

 

• The per capita income in India is calculated by CSO (Central Statistical Organization).

 

 

• According the statistics released by the CSO in 2015, the per capita income in the country reached Rs. 88538/- per annum . This is according to the data on current prices.
• The PMEAC (Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council) in the ‘Economic Outlook’ released on August 1, 2011 lowered the economic growth rate projection from 9 percent to 8.2 percent.The PMEAC also reduced the manufacturing sector growth rate from 9 percent to 7 percent.
• The CSO has included the contributions of all the 3 sectors (Primary, secondary and tertiary) in estimating the National income.

 

Difficulty in measuring National Income

There are many difficulties in measuring national income of a country accurately. The difficulties involved in national income accounting are both conceptual and statical in nature. Some of these difficulties involved in the measurement of national income are discussed below:

Non Monetary Transactions

The first problem in National Income accounting relates to the treatment of non-monetary transactions such as the services of housewives to the members of the families. For example, if a man employees a maid servant for household work, payment to her will appear as a positive item in the national income. But, if the man were to marry to the maid servant, she would performing the same job as before but without any extra payments. In this case, the national income will decrease as her services performed remains the same as before.

Problem of Double Counting

Only final goods and services should be included in the national income accounting. But, it is very difficult to distinguish between final goods and intermediate goods and services. An intermediate goods and service used for final consumption. The difference between final goods and services and intermediate goods and services depends on the use of those goods and services so there are possibilities of double counting.

The Underground Economy

The underground economy consists of illegal and uncleared transactions where the goods and services are themselves illegal such as drugs, gambling, smuggling, and prostitution. Since, these incomes are not included in the national income, the national income seems to be less than the actual amount as they are not included in the accounting.

Petty Production

There are large numbers of petty producers and it is difficult to include their production in national income because they do not maintain any account.

Public Services 

Another problem is whether the public services like general administration, police, army services, should be included in national income or not. It is very difficult to evaluate such services.

Transfer Payments 

Individual get pension, unemployment allowance and interest on public loans, but these payments creates difficulty in the measurement of national income. These earnings are a part of individual income and they are also a part of government expenditures.

Capital Gains or Loss

When the market prices of capital assets change the owners make capital gains or loss such gains or losses are not included in national income.

Price Changes

National income is the money value of goods and services. Money value depends on market price, which often changes. The problem of changing prices is one of the major problems of national income accounting. Due to price rises the value of national income for particular year appends to increase even when the production is decreasing.

Wages and Salaries paid in Kind 

Additional payments made in kind may not be included in national income. But, the facilities given in kind are calculated as the supplements of wages and salaries on the income side.

Illiteracy and Ignorance

The main problem is whether to include the income generated within the country or even generated abroad in national income and which method should be used in the measurement of national income.

Besides these, the following points are also represents the difficulties in national income accounting:

• Second hand transactions;
• Environment damages;
• Calculation of depreciation;
• Inadequate and unreliable statistics; etc.

 

Regional imbalances and income inequalitiies in India: Steps taken by the Government to reduce it.

Regional imbalance is the disparity in economic and social development of two regions. One region/city/area is stronger than another region/city/area. Regions develop when investments are made to set up industries, service sectors, educational institutions, health care facilities etc.

Income inequality is the unequal distribution of household or individual income across the various participants in an economy. Income inequality is often presented as the percentage of income to a percentage of population.

The problem of regional disparities is a global phenomenon and, for India, up to a great extent, an inheritance from the colonial past. For example, in India, the historical factors have guided the development of the port towns of Bombay, Madras, Calcutta and these three cities have in turn worked as nuclei for the development of Maharashtra and Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu and West Bengal respectively which are at present the most industrially advanced states in India. On the other hand, the areas having natural advantages in the form of mineral resources, such as Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan have lagged far behind in the process of economic development.

The most important indicator of regional imbalance and disparity among the different states of India is the difference in per capita state income figures. It is revealed from data in 2000-01, that the national average per capita income in India was Rs. 10,254. The states whose per capita income figures were higher than this national average include Punjab, Goa, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Among these nine states, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Gujarat have attained a high degree of agricultural as well as industrial development. Although West Bengal and Karnataka attained per capita income higher than the all India average in 1094-95 but it started trailing behind the all India average in recent years due to its poor rate of economic growth.

Various steps taken by Government to reduce it are:

1.Land Reforms and Redistribution of Ceiling Surplus Land:

In India, income inequalities are mostly resulted from the concentration of agricultural land in the hands of a few big landlords. The Zamindary system prevailing in our country has created a system of absentee landlords in the farm sector who appropriated a major portion of the agricultural produce by exploiting the farmers.

After independence, various legislative measures were introduced for abolishing the system of absentee landlords and other intermediaries and imposing ceiling on land holdings.

 

2. Resource Transfer and Backwardness:

While making necessary award, the Finance Commission in India has been giving due weightage to backwardness of a state as an important criteria for resource transfer from the centre to the states.

Declaration of Backward states and special category states by the government to reduce the regional imbalances.

Under the present system of federal fiscal transfer, the transfer of resources from the Centre to States includes central assistance for State Plans, Non plan transfer as per the recommendations of the Finance Commission, ad-hoc transfer, allocation of fund for centrally sponsored schemes, allocation of both short-term and long-term credit from financial institutions etc.

The share of backward states along with special category states in the Plan outlay as well as in central assistance has been increasing steadily since the First Plan. Accordingly, the share of these states in the total plan outlay had increased from 46 per cent in the First Plan to 51 per cent in the Third Plan and then to 54 per cent in the Fifth Plan.

3. Special Area Development Programmes:

In order to develop hilly areas, tribal areas, drought- prone areas, specific plan schemes have been designed with full central assistance. Besides, other schemes of rural development formulated for the improvement of specific groups such as marginal farmers and agricultural laborers were implemented in the backward regions.

An area based approach of ‘Tribal Sub-Plans’ (TSPs) is now being implemented for the development of scheduled tribes located in the backward rural areas.

In this manner, different special schemes for particular target group located in the backward areas are being included for block level planning for attaining integrated rural development and considerable employment opportunities. All these programmes include SFDA, MFAL, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Crash Scheme for Rural Employment (CSRE) etc.

 

4. Incentives for Promoting Investment in Backward Regions:

In order to fight the problem of industrial backwardness of some backward regions and also to promote private investment in backward regions, various fiscal and other incentives have been provided by both the Centre, the States and other financial institution under public sector.

 5.Social Security Measures:

Social security measures for the workers are considered as an important step towards reduction of income inequalities. India has adopted some social security provisions for the workers engaged in the organized sector. Workmen’s Compensation Act for providing compensation in case of any injury to industrial workers, Maternity Benefit Act for women workers and Employees

Provident Fund Act for providing the benefit of provident fund to the workers and other employees engaged in organized industries.

6. Employment Programme and Wage Policies:

With the growing menace of unemployment problem in India, the Government of India has introduced some special employment programmes since the Fourth Plan onwards in order to provide some relief and scope for gainful employment to unemployed. These programmes include Crash Scheme for Rural Unemployment, the Drought Prone Areas Programme, Food for Work Programme, self-employment schemes for engineers, employment scheme for educated unemployment etc.

All these programmes were short lived and ad-hoc in nature. During the Sixth Plan period, the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was initiated in 1978-79 and after that National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) were also introduced.

More radical socio­economic reforms seem to be in the offing in India. These are some of the measures that can be adopted to reduce inequalities. But inequalities can be reduced, they cannot be eliminated altogether. In fact, absolute equality is unattainable.

 

Additional Information

Recommendations

1. A composite criteria for identifying backward areas (with the Block as a unit) based on indicators of human development including poverty, literacy and infant mortality rates, along with indices of social and economic infrastructure, should be developed by the Planning Commission for the 12th Five Year Plan.
2. Union and State Governments should adopt a formula for Block-wise devolution of funds targeted at more backward areas.
3. Governance needs to be particularly strengthened in more backward areas within a State. The role of ‘special purpose vehicles’ such as backward area development boards and authorities in reducing intra-State disparities needs to be reviewed. It is advisable to strengthen local governments and make them responsible and accountable.
4. A system of rewarding States (including developed States) achieving significant reduction in intra-State disparities should be introduced.
5. Additional funds need to be provided to build core infrastructure at the inter-district level in less developed States and backward regions in such States. The quantum of assistance should be made proportionate to the number of people living in such areas.
6. The approach to all such funding should be outcome driven. The strategy should be to define acceptable minimum norms of human and infrastructure development that every block in the country should attain and funding should be driven by the consideration to achieve the norms so defined.

 

Role of Foreign Capital and Multinational companies in

Industrial development of India

 

The development of any society or country without economic development is a myth. Economic development brings prosperity which in turns is directly proportional to the amount of goods and services produced quantitatively or in broad sense we can say in money equivalent.

So the factor of production depends on the following parameters.

• Land
• Labour
• Capital

 

 

For a country like India which is the second largest populous country in the world, expected to become most populous by 2050 if population growth is continuing at the current pace, where labour is available in abundance. Similarly, land is also available where more economic prosperity can be brought than the currently pursued economic activity. So after considering all these factors, capital played a crucial role.

 

So to fulfill the aspirations of common masses and general wellbeing of the society various governments are competing against each other to attract the foreign capital.

 

 

 

This theory is particularly gained ground after the Latin American crises which resulted in the Washington consensus/Washington model. This is further ascertained by East Asian miracle. India has also experienced the taste of after economic reforms of 1991, which is better known as LPG reforms. However from the experience of various countries various model of foreign capital and model have emerged. It also requires some kind of reduction regulation and restraint.

 

Why there is a need of foreign capital?

 

Foreign capital is required because of following reasons.

1. Inadequate domestic capital to fuel the economic growth.

Foreign capital is perceived as a resource of filling the gap of the capital scarce country. It helps in maintaining the foreign exchange, accelerating government revenue, planning the investment necessary to achieve development target.

For example ‘savings-investment’ gap

To achieve a planned growth rate of 7 percent per annum and the capital-output ration of 3 percent, rate of saving should be 21 percent. For domestic mobilization of 16 percent, there will be a shortfall of 5 percent. Thus the foremost contribution of foreign capital to national development is its role in filling the resource gap between targeted investment and locally mobilized savings.

 

 

 

2. Stability of Foreign exchange.

Foreign capital is needed to fill the gap between the targeted foreign exchange requirements and those derived from net export earnings plus net public foreign aid. This is generally called the foreign exchange or trade gap.

3. Reducing the Balance of Payment deficit.

An inflow of private foreign capital helps in removing deficit in the balance of payments over time if the foreign-owned enterprise can generate a net positive flow of export earnings.

4. Helps in realizing the estimated tax revenue of government

The third gap that the foreign capital and specifically, foreign investment helps to fill is that between governmental tax revenue and the locally raised taxes. By taxing the profits of the foreign enterprises the governments of developing countries are able to mobilize funds for projects (like energy, infrastructure) that are badly needed for economic development.

5. Foreign investment meets the gap in management, entrepreneurship, technology and skill.

These can be transferred to the host country through suitable training programmes and the processes. Further foreign companies bring with them

 

 

 

sophisticated technological knowledge about production processes while transferring modern machinery equipment to the capital-poor developing countries.

In fact, in this era of globalization, there is a general belief that foreign capital transforms the productive structures of the developing economics leading to high rates of growth. Besides the above, foreign capital, by creating new productive assets, contributes to the generation of employment a prime need of a country like India.

Forms and types of foreign Capital

Foreign capital flow in a country can take place either in the form of investment, concessional assistance, foreign aid.

1. Foreign Investment includes Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) / Foreign Institutional Investment (FII).

FPI includes the amounts raised by Indian corporate through Euro Equities, Global Depository Receipts (GDR’s), and American Depository Receipts (ADR’s).

2. Non-Concessional Assistance mainly includes External Commercial Borrowings (ECB’s), loans from governments of other countries/multilateral agencies on market terms and deposits obtained from Non-Resident Indians (NRIs).

 

 

 

3. Concessional Assistance includes grants and loans obtained at low rates of interest with long maturity periods. Such assistance is generally provided on a bilateral basis or through multilateral agencies like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and International Development Association (IDA) etc.

Grants do not carry any obligation of repayment and are mostly made available to meet some temporary crisis. Foreign Aid can also be received in terms of direct supplies of agricultural commodities or industrial raw materials to overcome temporary shortages in the economy. Foreign Aid may also be given in the form of technical assistance.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Role of Multinational Corporations in the Indian Economy

Prior to 1991 Multinational companies did not play much role in the Indian economy. In the pre-reform period the Indian economy was dominated by public enterprises.

Earlier Industries and firms are regulated through Industrial Policy, 1956 put some kind of restraint on private firms, as a consequence of which they didn’t able to expand beyond a limit.

While multinational companies played a significant role in the promotion of growth and trade in South-East Asian countries they did not play much role in the Indian economy where import-substitution development strategy was followed. Since 1991, with the adoption of industrial policy of liberalization, privatization

And globalization role of private foreign capital has been recognized as important for rapid growth of the Indian economy. So Multinational corporations have been allowed to operate in India subjected to some regulations.

 

Impact of Multinational countries on the country and general population.

1. Promotion Foreign Investment:

In the recent years, external assistance to developing countries has been declining. This is because the donor developed countries have not been willing to part with a

 

larger proportion of their GDP as assistance to developing countries. MNCs can bridge the gap between the requirements of foreign capital for increasing foreign investment in India.

The liberalized foreign investment pursued since 1991, allows MNCs to make investment in India subject to different ceilings fixed for different industries or projects. However, in some industries 100 per cent export-oriented units (EOUs) can be set up. It may be noted, like domestic investment, foreign investment has also a multiplier effect on income and employment in a country.

For example, the effect of Suzuki firm’s investment in Maruti Udyog manufacturing cars is not confined to income and employment for the workers and employees of Maruti Udyog but goes beyond that. Many workers are employed in dealer firms who sell Maruti cars.

Moreover, many intermediate goods are supplied by Indian suppliers to Maruti Udyog and for this many workers are employed by them to manufacture various parts and components used in Maruti cars. Thus their incomes also go up by investment by a Japanese multinational in Maruti Udyog Limited in India.

2. Non-Debt Creating Capital inflows:

In pre-reform period in India when foreign direct investment by MNCs was discouraged, we relied heavily on external commercial borrowing (ECB) which was of debt-creating capital inflows. This raised the burden of external debt and debt service payments reached an alarming figure of our current account receipts.

 

 

 

This created doubts about our ability to fulfill our debt obligations and there was a flight of capital from

India and this resulted in balance of payments crisis in 1991. As direct foreign investment by multinational corporations represents non-debt creating capital inflows we can avoid the liability of debt-servicing payments. Moreover, the advantage of investment by MNCs lies in the fact that servicing of non-debt capital begins only when the MNC firm reaches the stage of making profits to repatriate Thus, MNCs can play an important role in reducing stress strains and on India’s balance of payments (BOP).

3. Technology Transfer:

Another important role of multinational corporations is that they transfer  sophisticated technology to developing countries which are essential for raising productivity of working class and enable us to start new productive ventures requiring high technology. Whenever, multinational firms set up their subsidiary production units or joint-venture units, they not only import new equipment and machinery embodying new technology but also skills and technical know-how to use the new equipment and machinery.

As a result, the Indian workers and engineers come to know of new superior technology and the way to use it. In India, the corporate sector spends only few resources on Research and Development (R&D). It is the giant multinational

 

 

 

corporate firms (MNCs) which spend a lot on the development of new technologies can greatly benefit the developing countries by transferring the new technology developed by them. Therefore, MNCs can play an important role in the technological up-gradation of the Indian economy.

4. Promotion of Exports:

With globalization and producing products efficiently and therefore with lower costs multinationals can play a significant role in promoting exports of a country in which they invest. For example, the rapid expansion in China’s exports in recent years is due to the large investment made by multinationals in various fields of Chinese industry.

Historically in India, multinationals made large investment in plantations whose products they exported. In recent years, Vistara airlines made a large investment in airline industries with a joint collaboration with Tata Industries.

BrahMos missile is a joint venture of Govt. of India with Russia, which is being sold to Vietnam, will bring income to India.

As a matter of fact until recently, when giving permission to a multinational firm for investment in India, Government granted the permission subject to the condition that the concerned multinational company would export the product so as to earn foreign exchange for India.

 

 

 

However, in case of Pepsi, a famous cold -drink multinational company, while for getting a product license in 1961 to produce Pepsi Cola in India it agreed to export a certain proportion of its product, but later it expressed its inability to do so. Instead, it ultimately agreed to export things other than what it produced such as tea.

5. Investment in Infrastructure:

With a large command over financial resources and their superior ability to raise resources both globally and inside India it is said that multinational corporations could invest in infrastructure such as power projects, modernization of airports and posts, telecommunication.

The investment in infrastructure will give a boost to industrial growth and help in creating income and employment in the India economy. The external economies generated by investment in infrastructure by MNCs will therefore crowd in investment by the indigenous private sector and will therefore stimulate economic growth.

In view of above, Make in India initiative, skill India Initiative, current demographic scenario of India, foreign direct investment (FDI) will be encouraged and actively sought, especially in areas of (a) infrastructure, (b) high technology and (c) exports, and (d) where domestic assets and employment are created on a significant scale

 

Social Reforms Movements in Muslim Community: Wahabi Movement & Aligarh Movement

 

The Muslims reformers in India launched many religious movements. Some tried to revive the religion and other tried to reform the religion. During the 19^th century religion reforms movement were on the peak. Movements like Deoband Movement, Ahamadiya movement, Aligarh Movement;Wahabi Movement has influenced the masses and made them think about their religion and their status.

In this article, we will discuss about Wahabi movement and Aligarh Movement.

 

Wahabi Movement

 

Timings of movement:

Wahabi movement expands from 1820 to 1870.

Foundation of movement:

Saiyad Ahmad was the leader of movement in India who was influenced by the teaching of Abdul Wahab of Arab and saint shah Waliullah.

Objective of movement:

Wahabi movement was a reformist movement, which tried to do away with un-Islamic practices in Islam. It was a Islamic purifying movement. However, later the movement turned against Sikh and British Imperials.

Important events of movement:

Saiyad Ahmad led a countrywide movement to spread his movement. He wanted to make India from Dar-ul-Hurb to Dar-ul-Islam. Dar-ul-Hurb means land of Kafirs.

Syed Ahmed criticized all changes and innovations in Islam and encouraged a return to the pure Islam and society of Arabia of the Prophet’s times.

For the achievement of the desired objectives, Syed Ahmad looked for

• the correct leader,
• a proper association and
• a safe territory from where he wanted to launch his Jihad.

At first, he revolted against the Sikh kingdom ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1830 they captrured Peshawar but they lost it to Sikhs in 1831 after the battle of Balakot.

After the inclusion of Punjab in 1849 in East India Company British was the target of Wahabi Movement.

Wahabi revolted against British in 1860s but British understood the upcmongdanger. They suppress the movement after attacking Wahabi bases in Sathana, Bihar.

Effect of movement:

Wahabi Movement spread the word of religion in Islam and it accepted Islam as the most important religion in the world. The British in 1870 altogether suppressed the movement.

Aligarh Movement

 

Foundation of movement:

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan launched the Aligarh movement. He started the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875, which was later, become center of Aligarh Movement.

Objective of movement:

Unlike Wahabi movement Aligarh movement was a revivalist movement; which sought change in religion as the need of the hour. Aligarh movement saw western education necessary for the development of individual.

Important events of movement:

The Aligarh Movement was the drive for modern Muslim education.

Itplayed an important role to Indian Muslims by its political foresightedness.

From the early stages, the movement was political in nature.  In 1886 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference i to promote more broadly the educational aims of Aligarh Movement.

New trend in Urdu literature was due to Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his association accepted and promoted simple style, which helped Muslims to understand the main purpose of the movement. It discarded the old writing style of Urdu, which was not for the common people.

The Aligarh Movement promoted adoption of a historical and moral attitude, which influenced the life of the Indian Muslim.

It helped scholars to leave the romantic style of prose and poetry.

Urdu Defense Associationconsidered asderivative of the Aligarh Movement.

The DeobandSchool was opposed to the movement as Aligarh Movement. They considered it as supporters of the British

 

Effect of movement:

The Wahabi movement and other movements before 1857 saw Muslims anti- British. After the revolt, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan thought to have support of British in the development of Islam and Muslims in India.

Aligarh Movement gave political representation to Muslims and improved their social condition.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rise of Maratha Empire

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji Bhosale) was the founder of strong Maratha Empire in the west part of India in 17th Century.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji Bhosale) was born in the fort of Shivneri, near from city Junner (Pune District), in the year 1630 (19th February’ 1630). His mother Jijabai Bhosale named him Shivaji in the honor of goddess Shivai Devi. Chhatrapati Shivaji was devotAed to his mother Jijabai Bhosale, who was extreme religious. This kind of environment had put deep impact on Shivaji maharaj.

Expansion of Empire and Battles of Shivaji

• In the 1659 Adilshah sent Afzalkhan with the army of 75000 soldiers to destroy Shivaji with his empire. Chhatrapati Shivaji killed Afzal Khan with full diplomatically. He signaled his troops to start the great assault on the Adilshahi Sultanate.
• Shivaji defeated Kaltalf Khan, a sardar of Shahista Khan in the Battle of Umberkhind with few soldiers (Mavale).
• Aurangjeb sent his maternal uncle Shahista Khan with powerful army over 1,50,000 on request of Badibegum Sahiba, Adishahi sultanate. In the April 1663Chhatrapati Shivaji personally made surprise attack on Shahista Khan in the LalMahal Pune.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji sacked surat ,the wealthy city of mughal empire in 1664. Surat was the financial capital of mughal& trading centre.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji agreed to give 23 forts and Rs. 4,00,000/- hone, to let his son Sambhaji become Mughal Sardar and ready to meet with Aurangjeb in the treaty of Purander between Chhatrapati Shivaji and Mirza Raje Jaisingh on behalf of Mughal.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji gained lot of province till jinji in Karnataka after coronation in the period of 1677-1678.
• Aurangjeb invited Chhatrapati Shivaji to Agra on occasion of his 50th birth anniversary. However, in the court on 1666 Aurangjeb made in stand behind military commanders of his court.Shivaji got angry and he refused gift which offered by Aurangjeb and stormed out of the court. He was house arrested by Aurangjeb .Chhatrapati Shivaji made supreme plan and succeed to escape from Agra.

Ashtpradhans of Shivaji

It was dministrative and advisory council set up by the Indian Shivaji which contributed to his successful military attacks on the Muslim Mughal Empire and to the good government of the territory over which he established his rule.

• Peshwa- Prime Minister
• Amatya- Finance Department
• Sachiv- Home Secretary
• Sumant- Foreign Secretary
• Nyayadheesh- Judicial Magistarate
• Senapati- Commander In chief
• Panditrao- relifious matters
• Mantri- Day to day activities

Revenue Administration

T he assessment of revenue was made after a careful survey and classification of the lands according to their quality and yield. The share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce. The cultivator was given the option of paying either in cash or kind.

Besides the land revenue, Shivaji had other sources of income, of which the most important were the chauth and sardeshmukhi. The chauth amounted to one-fourth of the standard revenue assessment of the place, while the sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 per cent de­manded from areas outside his kingdom because he claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh (chief headman) of the entire Maratha country. These taxes were levied on those living outside Maratha kingdom as a safeguard (a kind of protection money) against Shivaji’s forces plundering or raiding their territory.

Marathas Consolidation and Northward Expansion

Age of Peshwas

Balaji Vishwanath

With Balaji Vishwanath in charge of the Maratha military and Kanhoji in charge of the Marathas Navy. This agreement set the course for Balaji Viswanatha’s rise as a Peshwa during his subsequent visit to Delhi with an army of 12,000 Marathas. During this visit to Delhi, on an invitation from the Syed brothers in their struggle with the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyyar, the Maratha forces led by Balaji Viswanath clashed with the forces of Mughal Emperor and defeated them. This was the first Maratha victory over the Mughals in Delhi. This event marks the asendency of the Marathas in Delhi an asendency that was to last for almost a century till they were supplanted by the British in 1803.

The Peshwas – Baji Rao, Balaji Baji Rao, Madha Rao
After Shahu, the de facto executive power passed into the hands of the hereditary Prime Ministers the Peshwas. Balaji Viawanath Bhatt was succeeded by his son Baji Rao the first. Baji Rao was a very able and ambitious soldier and he was the one who consolidated Maratha power in North India.

Baji Rao died at a relativey young age of 40 in the year 1740. His was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji Rao. Balaji Baji Rao played a tragic role in Maratha history and the fissiparous tendencies he let loose ultimately let to the downfall of the Maratha empire.
His first mistake was to go back on the agreement between his grandfather Balaji Viswanath Bhatt and Kanhoji Angre according to which the Peshwa was to have no direct control over the Maratha Navy. He attacked the his own navy and weakened one arm of the Maratha might.
During his rule, North India was invaded by Ahmed Shah Abdali first in 1756. Balaji Baji Rao then sent his brother Raghunath Rao along with Malharrao Holkar to defeat Abdali. Raghunath rao not only defeated Abdali but chased him up to the Khyber pass till Attock in Paktoonistan. .
This success of Raghunath Rao aroused the jealousy of Balaji Baji Rao’s wife Gopikabai, who started conspiring against Raghunath Rao to undermine his influence. This led to corresponding jealousy from Anandibai who was Ragunath Rao’s wife. The unfortunate fallout of this court intrigue ws to end in the disastrous 3rd battle of Panipat in 1761.

The 3rd Battle of Panipat
When Abdali launched his second invasion in 1759 the Marathas who after their successes in 1756 had been hibernating in Maharashtra and Central India again woke up and in alliance with the Jat King Suraj Mal of Bharatpur formed an alliance. This alliance led by Shrimant Sadshiv Rao Bhau and Shrimant Vishwas Rao (the Peshwa Shrimant Balaji Baji Rao’s son) won spectacular victories and captured Delhi and Kunjapura (where the Afghan treasury and armoury was located). Here the alliance developed cracks due to the Maratha insistence on not allowing the Jats to loot Delhi. This ultimately split the alliance and Suraj Mal withdrew from the alliance. The Marathas consequently marched upto Panipat, but instead of continuing their attacks to completely defeat the partly defeated Abdali and Najib Khan, they stayed put at Panipat, blocking the way of the Afghans back to Afghanistan. Seeing their way back to their homeland blocked, the Afghans now became restless. They in turn, decided to block the way of the Marathas back into the Deccan.
This stand-off continued for one whole year from the 14th of January 1760 up to the 14th of January 1761. This led to the fall in the morale of the stranded Marathas and ultimatley led to their defeat at Panipat.

The Afghans with Najib Khan meanwhile also recaptured Delhi and Kunjpura. On the decisive day of 14th January 1761 (Makar Sankranti), the Marathas decided to break-through the Afghan blockade and re-enter Deccan. The disastrous battle saw about one hundred thousand Maratha troops being slaughtered in a matter of eight hours. But the Afghans too suffered heavy losses and decided enough was enough and went back to Afghanistan never to return to India.
The defeat of the Marathas and the withdrawal of the Afghans created a power vacuum in North India in the period 1761-1790. It was this vacuum that was filled up by the rising British power. But more of this later.

Rural-Urban Composition:

For the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas that in rural areas

Rural Population in India: 68.84%

Urban Population in India:31.16%

Level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011 Census

The proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%

 

INDIA/STATE/UT	TOTAL POPULATION	RURAL POPULATION	URBAN POPULATION	RURAL POP PERCENTAGE	URBAN POP PERCANTAGE
A & N ISLANDS	3,79,944	2,44,411	1,35,533	64.33	35.67
ANDHRA PRADESH	8,46,65,533	5,63,11,788	2,83,53,745	66.51	33.49
ARUNACHAL PRADESH	13,82,611	10,69,165	3,13,446	77.33	22.67
ASSAM	3,11,69,272	2,67,80,516	43,88,756	85.92	14.08
BIHAR	10,38,04,637	9,20,75,028	1,17,29,609	88.7	11.3
CHANDIGARH	10,54,686	29,004	10,25,682	2.75	97.25
CHHATTISGARH	2,55,40,196	1,96,03,658	59,36,538	76.76	23.24
DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI #	3,42,853	1,83,024	1,59,829	53.38	46.62
DAMAN & DIU	2,42,911	60,331	1,82,580	24.84	75.16
GOA	14,57,723	5,51,414	9,06,309	37.83	62.17
GUJARAT	6,03,83,628	3,46,70,817	2,57,12,811	57.42	42.58
HARYANA	2,53,53,081	1,65,31,493	88,21,588	65.21	34.79
HIMACHAL PRADESH	68,56,509	61,67,805	6,88,704	89.96	10.04
INDIA	1,21,01,93,422	83,30,87,662	37,71,05,760	68.84	31.16
JAMMU & KASHMIR	1,25,48,926	91,34,820	34,14,106	72.79	27.21
JHARKHAND	3,29,66,238	2,50,36,946	79,29,292	75.95	24.05
KARNATAKA	6,11,30,704	3,75,52,529	2,35,78,175	61.43	38.57
KERALA	3,33,87,677	1,74,55,506	1,59,32,171	52.28	47.72
LAKSHADWEEP	64,429	14,121	50,308	21.92	78.08
MADHYA PRADESH	7,25,97,565	5,25,37,899	2,00,59,666	72.37	27.63
MAHARASHTRA	11,23,72,972	6,15,45,441	5,08,27,531	54.77	45.23
MANIPUR	27,21,756	18,99,624	8,22,132	69.79	30.21
MEGHALAYA	29,64,007	23,68,971	5,95,036	79.92	20.08
MIZORAM	10,91,014	5,29,037	5,61,977	48.49	51.51
NAGALAND	19,80,602	14,06,861	5,73,741	71.03	28.97
NCT OF DELHI	1,67,53,235	4,19,319	1,63,33,916	2.5	97.5
ORISSA	4,19,47,358	3,49,51,234	69,96,124	83.32	16.68
PUDUCHERRY	12,44,464	3,94,341	8,50,123	31.69	68.31
PUNJAB	2,77,04,236	1,73,16,800	1,03,87,436	62.51	37.49
RAJASTHAN	6,86,21,012	5,15,40,236	1,70,80,776	75.11	24.89
SIKKIM	6,07,688	4,55,962	1,51,726	75.03	24.97
TAMIL NADU	7,21,38,958	3,71,89,229	3,49,49,729	51.55	48.45
TRIPURA	36,71,032	27,10,051	9,60,981	73.82	26.18
UTTAR PRADESH	19,95,81,477	15,51,11,022	4,44,70,455	77.72	22.28
UTTARAKHAND	1,01,16,752	70,25,583	30,91,169	69.45	30.55
WEST BENGAL	9,13,47,736	6,22,13,676	2,91,34,060	68.11	31.89

 

 

 

 

 

Age Structure:

 

Age- sex structure is one of the most important characteristics of population composition. Almost all population characteristics vary significantly with age.

Information is included by sex and age group (0-14 years, 15-64 years, 65 years and over). The age structure of a population affects a nation’s key socioeconomic issues. Countries with young populations (high percentage under age 15) need to invest more in schools, while countries with older populations (high percentage ages 65 and over) need to invest more in the health sector. The age structure can also be used to help predict potential political issues. For example, the rapid growth of a young adult population unable to find employment can lead to unrest.

Below is the age structure of India:

 

 

0-14 years: 27.71% (male 186,420,229/female 164,611,755)
15-24 years: 17.99% (male 121,009,850/female 106,916,692)
25-54 years: 40.91% (male 267,203,029/female 251,070,105)
55-64 years: 7.3% (male 46,398,574/female 46,105,489)
65 years and over: 6.09% (male 36,549,003/female 40,598,872) (2016 est.)

 

 

Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males. Sex ratio is a valuable source for finding the population of women in India and what is the ratio of women to that of men in India.

In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the population ratio in India 2011 is 940 females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011 shows an upward trend from the census 2001 data. Census 2001 revealed that there were 933 females to that of 1000 males.

While Kerala with sex ratio of 1084 top the list, Daman and Diu with sex ratio of 618 is at the bottom of the list.

Below is the list of states according to the sex ration. In the list we can see the states with good sex ratio.

 

		2011 Census
S.No.	State	Sex Ratio	Child Sexratio
–	India	943	919
1	Kerala	1084	964
2	Puducherry	1037	967
3	Tamil Nadu	996	943
4	Andhra Pradesh	993	939
5	Chhattisgarh	991	969
6	Meghalaya	989	970
7	Manipur	985	930
8	Orissa	979	941
9	Mizoram	976	970

 

 

 

Rainfall: With an average annual rainfall of 1,170 mm, India is one of the wettest countries in the world. At one extreme are areas like Cherrapunji, in the northeast, which is drenched each year with 11,000 mm of rainfall, and at the other extreme are places like Jaisalmer, in the west, which receives barely 200 mm of annual rainfall. Though the average rainfall is adequate, nearly three-quarters of the rain pours down in less than 120 days, from June to September.

Groundwater: India’s groundwater resources are almost ten times its annual rainfall. According to the Central Groundwater Board of the Government of India, the country has an annual exploitable groundwater potential of 26.5 million hectare-meters. Nearly 85% of currently exploited groundwater is used only for irrigation. Groundwater accounts for as much as 70-80% of the value of farm produce attributable to irrigation. Besides, groundwater is now the source of four-fifths of the domestic water supply in rural areas, and around half that of urban and industrial areas. However, according to the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), the water table almost everywhere in India is falling at between one to three meters every year. Furthermore, the IIMI estimates that India is using its underground water resources atleast twice as fast they are being replenished. Already, excessive ground water mining has caused land subsidence in several regions of Central Uttar Pradesh.

Surface water: There are 14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins in the country. The major river basins constitute about 83-84% of the total drainage area. This, along with the medium river basins, accounts for 91% of the country’s total drainage. India has the largest irrigation infrastructure in the world, but the irrigation efficiencies are low, at around 35%.

Utilization of Water in India

Domestic use

Community water supply is the most important requirement and it is about 5% of the total water use. About 7 km3 of surface water and 18 km3 of groundwater are being used for community water supply in urban and rural areas. Along with the increase in population, another important change from the point of view of water supply is higher rate of urbanization. According to the projections, the higher is the economic growth, the higher would be urbanization. It is expected that nearly 61% of the population will be living in urban areas by the year 2050 in high-growth scenario as against 48% in low growth scenario. Different organizations and individuals have given different norms for water supply in cities and rural areas. The figure adopted by the NCIWRD9 was 220 litre per capita per day (lpcd) for class I cities. For the cities other than class I, the norms are 165 for the year 2025 and 220 lpcd for the year 2050. For rural areas, 70 lpcd and 150 lpcd have been recommended for the years 2025 and 2050. Based on these norms and projection of population, it is estimated that by 2050, water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90 km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% of rural water requirement will be met by surface water sources and the remaining from groundwater.

Irrigation

The irrigated area in the country was only 22.6 million hectare (Mha) in 1950–51. Since the food production was much below the requirement of the country, due attention was paid for expansion of irrigation. The ultimate irrigation potential of India has been estimated as 140 Mha. Out of this, 76 Mha would come from surface water and 64 Mha from groundwater sources. The quantum of water used for irrigation by the last century was of the order of 300 km3 of surface water and 128 km3 of groundwater, total 428 km3 . The estimates indicate that by the year 2025, the water requirement for irrigation would be 561 km3 for low-demand scenario and 611 km3 for high-demand scenario. These requirements are likely to further increase to 628 km3 for low-demand scenario and 807 km3 for high-demand scenario by 2050.

Hydroelectric power

The hydropower potential of India has been estimated at 84,044 MW at 60% load factor. At the time of independence, the installed capacity of hydropower projects was 508 MW. By the end of 1998, the installed hydropower capacity was about 22,000 MW. The status of hydropower development in major basins is highly uneven. According to an estimate, India has plans to develop 60,000 MW additional hydropower by the twelfth five-year plan. It includes 14,393 MW during the tenth five-year plan (2002–2007); 20,000 MW during eleventh (2007–2012) and 26,000 MW during the twelfth (2012–2017) five-year plans. A potential of the order of 10,000 MW is available for development of small hydropower projects in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of the country. Therefore, it is not only desirable but also a pressing need of time to draw a master plan for development of small, medium and large hydro-schemes for power generation.

Industrial

Water requirement Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial sector is of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear power plants with installed capacities of 40,000 MW and 1500 MW (1990 figures) respectively, is estimated to be about 19 km3 . In view of shortage of water, the industries are expected to switch over to waterefficient technologies. If the present rate of water use continues the water requirement for industries in 2050 would be 103 km3 ; this is likely to be nearly 81 km3 if watersaving technologies are adopted on a large scale.

Scarcity of Water

The highly variable nature of the climate makes groundwater the most popular alternative for irrigation and domestic water use across India and accounts for over 400 km3 of the annual utilizable resource in the country. This dependence on groundwater resources is particularly critical where dry season surface water levels are low or where wet season flows are too disruptive to be easily tapped. In addition to being accessible, groundwater quality is generally excellent in most areas and presents a relatively safe source of drinking water for Indians in rural and urban centers.

Agriculture remains central to the Indian economy and it therefore receives a greater share of the annual water allocation. According to the World Resources Institute (2000), 92% of India’s utilizable water is devoted to this sector, mostly in the form of irrigation. Groundwater alone accounts for 39% of the water used in agriculture and surface water use often comes at the expense of other sectors such as the industrial and domestic supply.7 Demand from the domestic sector has remained low and accounts for only 5% of the annual freshwater withdrawals in India8 .

The demand from domestic sector over the next twenty years will increase from 25 billion m3 to 52 billion m3. However, this increase in the demand from the domestic sector will not be as much as that from other sectors over the next several years.7 Currently, only 85% of the urban and 79% of the rural population has access to safe drinking water and fewer still have access to adequate sanitation facilities. Recognizing that the growing demand for water in agriculture and industries sets a pattern of water scarcity even in areas where there is sufficient water for domestic purpose, the national water policy has rightly prioritized drinking water over other uses.

However, in giving subsidies to the industrial and agriculture sectors where the water consumption is highest and allowing these sectors to use more water at negligible prices, the government has effectively contradicted its own water policy. This has resulted in mining of ground water leading to a rapidly falling water table. For example, the bottling companies of Pepsi and Coca-cola in different parts of India pay very little towards water mining and have practiced unsustainable water mining in these areas to the detriment of villagers and small farmers in the area.

Most urban areas are serviced by a municipal water distribution system. Usually, the municipal water supply originates from local reservoirs or canals, but in some cases water may be imported through inter-basin transfer. Although the major cities in India enjoy access to central water supply systems, these schemes often do not adequately cover the entire urban population and are notoriously inefficient and unreliable. In rural areas, access to water is even more precarious. Over 80% of the rural domestic water comes from groundwater sources since it is more reliable in terms of water quantity and quality. Still, in areas where water is scarce, rural women must travel long distances to wells or streams to fetch water for their daily needs.

In the past several decades, industrial production has increased in India owing to an increasingly open economy and greater emphasis on industrial development and international trade. Water consumption for this sector has consequently risen and will continue growing at a rate of 4.2% per year. According to the World Bank, demand of water for industrial, energy production and other uses will rise from 67 billion m3 to 228 billion m3 by 2025.

The United Nations has warned that by 2025 two-thirds of the world will face severe water shortages if the current pattern of water consumption continues. Water-privatization has been sought as one of the solutions to address the looming crisis.

Water Management

In view of the existing status of water resources and increasing demands of water for meeting the requirements of the rapidly growing population of the country as well as the problems that are likely to arise in future, a holistic, wellplanned long-term strategy is needed for sustainable water resources management in India.

Ground Water Management

Groundwater management to protect the aquifers from overexploitation, an effective groundwater management policy oriented towards promotion of efficiency, equity and sustainability is required. Agricultural holdings in India are highly fragmented and the rural population density is large. The exploitation of groundwater resources should be regulated so as not to exceed the recharging possibilities, as well as to ensure social equity. The detrimental environmental consequences of over-exploitation of groundwater need to be effectively prevented by the Central and State Governments. Overexploitation of groundwater should be avoided, especially near the coasts to prevent ingress of seawater into freshwater aquifers .

Clearly, a joint management approach combining government administration with active people participation is a promising solution . In critically overexploited areas, bore-well drilling should be regulated till the water table attains the desired elevation. Artificial recharge measures need to be urgently implemented in these areas. Amongst the various recharge techniques, percolation tanks are least expensive in terms of initial construction costs. Many such tanks already exist but a vast majority of these structures have silted up. In such cases, cleaning of the bed of the tank will make them reusable. Promotion of participatory action in rehabilitating tanks for recharging would go a long way in augmenting groundwater supply. Due to declining water table, the cost of extraction of groundwater has been increasing over time and wells often go dry. This poses serious financial burden on farmers. Hence, special programmes need to be designed to support these farmers. Finally, the role of government will have to switch from that of a controller of groundwater development to that of a facilitator of equitable and sustainable development. Shah18 mentions that three large-scale responses to groundwater depletion in India have emerged in recent years in an uncoordinated manner, and each presents an element of what might be its coherent strategy of resources governance .

Watershed management

For an equitable and sustainable management of shared water resources, flexible, holistic approach of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is required, which can cater to hydrological variations in time and space and changes in socio-economic needs along with societal values. Watershed is the unit of management in IWRM, where surface water and groundwater are inextricably linked and related to land use and management.

Watershed management aims to establish a workable and efficient framework for the integrated use, regulation and development of land and water resources in a watershed for socio-economic growth. Local communities play a central role in the planning, implementation and funding of activities within participatory watershed development programmes. In these initiatives, people use their traditional knowledge, available resources, imagination and creativity to develop watershed and implement community-centered programme.

Currently, many programmes, campaigns and projects are underway in different parts of India to spread mass awareness and mobilize the general population in managing water resources. Some of these are being implemented by the Central/State Governments, while others have been taken up by various Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). For example, Hariyali (meaning ‘greenery’) is a watershed management project, launched by the Central Government, which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation as well as generate employment opportunities.

The project is being executed by the Gram Panchayats (village governing bodies) with people’s participation; the technical support is provided by the block (sub-district) administration. Another good example of water conservation efforts is the ‘Neeru-Meeru’ (Water and You) programme launched in May 2000 by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. During the last three years, an additional storage space of more than 18,000 lakh m 3 has been created by constructing various water-harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, dugout ponds, check dams, etc. through peoples’ participation.

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the process to capture and store rainfall for its efficient utilization and conservation to control its runoff, evaporation and seepage. Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are:

• It increases water availability
• It checks the declining water table
• It is environmentally friendly
• It improves the quality of groundwater through dilution, mainly of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity, and
• It prevents soil erosion and flooding, especially in the urban areas.

Even in ancient days, people were familiar with the methods of conservation of rainwater and had practised them with success. Different methods of rainwater harvesting were developed to suit the geographical and meteorological conditions of the region in various parts of the country.

Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still prevalent in rural areas, is done by using surface storage bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks, etc. For example, Kul (diversion channels) irrigation system which carries water from glaciers to villages is practised in the Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh. In the arid regions of Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures locally known as Kund (a covered underground tank), are constructed near the house or a village to tackle drinking water problem. In Meghalaya, Bamboo Rainwater Harvesting for tapping of stream and spring water through bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. The system is so perfected that about 18–20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute is transported over several hundred meters.

 

 

Wildlife means all the flora and fauna, which are not domesticated by humans. It includes animals, birds,plants,insects and microorganisms.

With large regional variations in physiographic,climate,and edaphic types, indian forests offer a large variety of wild life in india.India bosts of more than 90,000species of animals which is about 6.5% of the world’s total species.Indian fauna includes about 6,500 invertebrates, 5,000mollusc,2,546 species of fishes, 2,000 species of birds,458 species of reptiles,4 species of panthers and over 60,000 species of insects.

 

The wildlife in India comprises a mix of species of different types of organisms. Apart from a handful of the major farm animals such as cows, buffaloes, goats, poultry, and camels, India has an amazingly wide variety of animals native to the country. It is home to Bengal and Indochinese tigers, Indian lions, deer, pythons, wolves, foxes, bears, crocodiles, wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, varieties of bison and the Asian elephant. The region’s rich and diverse wildlife is preserved in 120+ national parks, 18 Bio-reserves and 500+ wildlife sanctuaries across the country. India has some of the most biodiverse regions of the world and hosts four of the world’s 35 biodiversity hotspots – or treasure-houses – that is the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma and Nicobar islands in Sundaland. Since India is home to a number of rare and threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to preserve these species. India is one of the seventeen megadiverse countries. According to one study, India along with other 16 mega diverse countries is home to about 60-70% of the world’s biodiversity.India, lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, is home to about 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering plant species.

India has the largest population of elephants.Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India‘s subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic change 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians. Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome’s toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.These include the Asian elephant, the Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger, Indian rhinoceros, mugger crocodile, and Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India’s wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; further federal protections were promulgated in the 1980s. Along with over 515 wildlife sanctuaries, India now hosts 18 biosphere reserves, 10 of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; 26 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.

.

Fauna

The Hanuman langur with newborn. At least seven species of grey langurs are found in India out of which five are endemic.

One of the world’s rarest monkeys, Gee’s golden langur typifies the precarious survival of much of India’s mega fauna.

The Indian rhinoceros in the Kaziranga National Park. Kaziranga in Assam, India is home to two-thirds of the one-horned rhinoceros population.

India is home to several well-known large mammals, including the Asian elephant, Bengal and Indochinese tigers,^[2][3] Asiatic lion, Indian leopard,^[4] Indian sloth bear and Indian rhinoceros. Some other well-known large Indian mammals are: ungulates such as the rare wild Asian water buffalo, common domestic Asian water buffalo, gail, gaur, and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family, such as the Indian wolf, Bengal fox and golden jackal, and the dhole or wild dogs are also widely distributed. However, the dhole, also known as the whistling hunter, is the most endangered top Indian carnivore, and the Himalayan wolf is now a critically endangered species endemic to India.^{[citation needed]} It is also home to the striped hyena, macaques, langur and mongoose species.

Main fauna and their distribution area:

 

Fauna name	Distribution area and discription
Elephant	Assam ,West Bengal,CentralIndia,three southern states(Kerela,Karnataka,Tamilnadu)
Rhinoceros	throughout the INDO- GANGETIC plain as far west as rajasthan.The number of this Mammal has drastically decreased and now there are less than 1500 rhino which are confined to Assam and West bengal.They survive under strict protection in the kaziranga and manassancturies of Assam and andjaldapara sanctuary of west bengal.
Tiger	There are 1700 tigers in india mainly found in the forests of eastern himalayan foothills and in the parts of peninsular india.
Cheetah	The number of cheetahs has fallen to less than 200 untill successful breeding programme in the gir sanctuary in gujrat resulted in some recovery.
The gaur or indian bison	It is one of the largest existing bovine and is found in the forest of central india.
Chinkara/the black buck/the indian gazelle/nilgai/	The indian antelope or the blue bull
reptiles	Large variety of reptiles is found in india.many of them are now endangerd.there are more than 200 species or subspecies of snakes ,the best is cobra,krait,andrusselviper.these are poisonous snakes while DHAMAN is non poisonous snakes. Gharialare large size important reptiles,and there number has drastically reduced.they are hunted for their skins. The big estuarin crocodile is still found fron the ganga to the Mahanadi. The lizards include well known chameleon and the monitor lizard or varanus.they both are found in deserts and both are endangered species. Olive ridley turtle found mainly in Odisha.
Deer	Stag or barasingha is found in Assam,chattisgarh,madhyapradesh. The kasturimrug or musk deer lives in birch woods in the higher forests of the himalayan Thamin is a pretty deer found in manipurcontaining kasturi,

 

Flora

There are about 17500 taxa of flowering plants from India. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 helped to improve protection of the natural habitat. Many ecoregions, such as the sholaforests, also exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.

India’s forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangeticplain. Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies.

 

Wildlife Conservation in India

Wildlife means all the flora and fauna, which are        not domesticated by humans. It includes animals, plants and microorganisms.

The need for conservation of wildlife in India is often questioned because of the apparently incorrect priority in the face of direct poverty of the people. However,

Article 48 of the Constitution of India specifies that, “The state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country” and

Article 51-A states that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”

The committee in the Indian Board for Wildlife, in their report, defines wildlife as “the entire natural uncultivated flora and fauna of the country” while

the Wildlife (protection) Act 1972 defines it as “any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish, moths and aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat.”

Despite the various environmental issues faced, the country still has a rich and varied wildlife compared to Europe. Large and charismatic mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India, and several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs.

Project Tiger, started in 1972, is a major effort to conserve the tiger and its habitats. At the turn of the 20th century, one estimate of the tiger population in India placed the figure at 40,000, yet an Indian tiger census conducted in 2008 revealed the existence of only 1,411 tigers. 2010 tiger census revealed that there are 1700 tigers left in India. As per the latest tiger census (2015), there are around 2226 tigers in India. By far, there is an overall 30% increase in tiger population.  Various pressures in the later part of the 20th century led to the progressive decline of wilderness resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger habitats.

At the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) General Assembly meeting in Delhi in 1969, serious concern was voiced about the threat to several species of wildlife and the shrinkage of wilderness in India.

In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed, and in 1972 the Wildlife Protection Act came into force. The framework was then set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation with an ecological approach. However, there is not much optimism about this framework’s ability to save the peacock, which is the national bird of India. George Schaller wrote about tiger conservation:

Wildlife Conservation in India: Steps taken for Wildlife Conservation In India

Like forests, wildlife is also a national resource which not only helps in maintaining the ecological balance but is also beneficial from economic, recre­ational and aesthetic points of view.

There was a time when human interference was minimum, the number of wild animals was quite high and there was no problem of their protection or conservation.

But, with the expansion of agriculture, settlement, industrial and other developmental activities and mainly due to greed of man the number of wild animals gradually became lesser and lesser.

As a result that several species of animals have been pronounced extinct and several others are at the verge of it. Deforestation is also one of the main reasons for the loss of wildlife. Mass scale killings of wild animals for their meat, bones, fur, teeth, hair, skin, etc., are going on throughout the world. Therefore, the need for wildlife conservation has now become a necessity.

Population growth, the expansion of agriculture and livestock raising, the building of cities and roads, and pollution are among the many pressures on the natural habitat of wildlife. Along with illegal hunting, habitat reduction and its degradation has threatened the bio-diversity of the regions where these are rampant.

Preservation of wildlife does not mean a blanket protection to all faunal and floral species; rather it implies a proper, judicious control over the multipli­cation of plants and animals which interact together to provide a proper environment to man whose very existence is in peril today.

Due to the irrational use of natural and biotic resources of the earth in the past, most of the wildlife has been destroyed beyond retrieval. It is our urgent duty to protect the natural splendour of ecosystems and to evolve a system of co-existence with every living creature upon the earth.

Although countries of the world are very particular regarding conservation of wildlife, the number of wild animals is reducing day by day. World Wild Life Fund is the international agency doing commendable work in promoting the protection of wildlife. There are national agencies also engaged in conservation of wildlife.

Some steps in the direction of wildlife conservation that can be taken are as follows:

(i) To survey and collect all the information about wildlife, especially, their number and growth.

(ii) To protect habitat by protecting forests.

(iii) To delimit the areas of their natural habitat.

(iv) To protect wildlife from pollution and from natural hazards.

(v) To impose complete restriction on hunting and capturing of wildlife.

(vi) To impose restrictions on export and import of wildlife products and severe punishment to be given to those who indulge in this activity.

(vii) To develop game sanctuaries for specific wild animals or for general wildlife.

(viii) To make special arrangements to protect those species whose number is very limited.

(ix) To develop general awareness at national and international level regarding protection of wildlife.

(x) A system of wildlife management is adopted through trained personnel. India is a good example where several steps have been taken for wildlife conservation. It is a country of varied wildlife, where more than 500 types of wild animals, 2,100 types of birds and about 20,000 types of reptiles and fishes have been found.

According to an estimate, in India about 200 species of wild animals and birds have become extinct and another 2,500 are on the verge of extinction. Some of them are black buck, chinkara, wolf, swamp deer, nilgai, Indian gazelle, antelope, tiger, rhinoceros, gir lion, crocodile, flamingo, pelican, bustard, white crane, grey heron, mountain quail, etc.

In India, the government and NGOs are taking keen interest in protection of wildlife. The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, has several provisions for the conservation of wildlife. As many as 165 game sanctuaries and 21 national parks have been developed to protect the natural habitat and wild animals. Apart from this, a Wild Life Conservation Week is also celebrated from 1st to 7th October every year. But still there is a long way to go in this direction.

Legal Framework for Wildlife Conservation in India.

The Government of India has introduced various types of legislation in response to the growing destruction of wildlife and forests. These are:

1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Last amended in 2006)

The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), 1972 is an important statute that provides a powerful legal framework for:

• Prohibition of hunting
• Protection and management of wildlife habitats
• Establishment of protected areas
• Regulation and control of  trade in parts and products derived from wildlife
• Management of zoos.

The WLPA provides for several categories of Protected Areas/Reserves:

• National Parks
• Wildlife Sanctuaries
• Tiger Reserves
• Conservation Reserves
• Community Reserves

National parks and Tiger Reserves are by law more strictly protected, allowing virtually no human activity except that which is in the interest of wildlife conservation. Grazing and private tenurial rights are disallowed in National Parks but can be allowed in sanctuaries at the discretion of the Chief Wildlife Warden. The amended WLPA does not allow for any commercial exploitation of forest produce in both national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and local communities can collect forest produce only for their bona fide needs.

No wild mammal, bird, amphibian, reptile, fish, crustacean, insects, or coelenterates listed in four Schedules of the WLPA can be hunted either within or outside protected areas. On conviction, the penalty for hunting is imprisonment for a period ranging from a minimum of three to a maximum of seven years with fines not less than 10,000 rupees.

Community reserves and conservation reserves are two new categories of protected areas that have been included under the WLPA. These two categories provide a greater role for local communities, stakeholders and civil society as well as the opportunity to protect many areas of conservation value that cannot be designated under strict categories such as wildlife sanctuaries or national parks.

The statute prohibits the destruction or diversion of wildlife and its habitat by any method unless it is for improvement or better management and this is decided by the state government in consultation with the National and State Boards for Wildlife.

The WLPA contains elaborate procedures for dealing with legal rights in proposed protected areas and acquisition of any land or interest under this law is deemed as an acquisition for a public purpose. However, with the enactment of The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, compliance of various provisions relating to tenurial and community rights must be ensured.

Apart from protected area establishment, other important aspects of the WLPA include procedures for the appointment of state wildlife authorities and wildlife boards, the regulation of trade in wildlife products and the prevention, detection and punishment of violations of the WLPA.

The 2006 amendment introduced a new chapter (IV B) for establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority and notification of Tiger Reserves (before this amendment, Tiger Reserves were not defined under the law, but were merely administrative designations to enable funding under Project Tiger).

The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was constituted vide the 2006 amendment to monitor and control the illegal trade in wildlife products.

The WLPA provides for investigation and prosecution of offences in a court of law by authorized officers of the forest department and police officers.

2.  The Indian Forest Act (1927) and Forest Acts of State Governments

The main objective of the Indian Forest Act (1927) was to secure exclusive state control over forests to meet the demand for timber. Most of these untitled lands had traditionally belonged to the forest dwelling communities. The Act defined state ownership, regulated its use, and appropriated the power to substitute or extinguish customary rights. The Act facilitates three categories of forests, namely

• Reserved forests
• Village forests
• Protected forests

Reserved forests are the most protected within these categories. No rights can be acquired in reserved forests except by succession or under a grant or contract with the government. Felling trees, grazing cattle, removing forest products, quarrying, fishing, and hunting are punishable with a fine or imprisonment. Although the Indian Forest Act is a federal act, many states have enacted similar forest acts but with some modifications.

3. The Forest Conservation Act (1980)

In order to check rapid deforestation due to forestlands being released by state governments for agriculture, industry and other development projects (allowed under the Indian Forest Act) the federal government enacted the Forest Conservation Act in 1980 with an amendment in 1988. The Act made the prior approval of the federal government necessary for de-reservation of reserved forests, logging and for use of forestland for non- forest purposes.

This powerful legislation has, to a large extent, curtailed the indiscriminate logging and release of forestland for non-forestry purposes by state governments. While the federal government imposed such strict restrictions, it did not simultaneously evolve a mechanism to compensate state governments for loss of timber logging revenues. This anomaly coupled with increasing pressure for land due to a burgeoning population has generated considerable resentment within state governments resulting in growing pressure to dilute the restrictive provisions of the Act. The Supreme Court of India has currently imposed a complete ban on the release of forestland for non-forestry activities without the prior approval of the federal government.

4. The Environment (Protection) Act (1986)The Environment Protection Act is an important legislation that provides for coordination of activities of the various regulatory agencies, creation of authorities with adequate powers for environmental protection, regulation of the discharge of environmental pollutants, handling of hazardous substances, etc. The Act provided an opportunity to extend legal protection to non-forest habitats (‘Ecologically Sensitive Areas’) such as grasslands, wetlands and coastal zones.
5.  The Biological Diversity Act (2002)India is a party to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. The provisions of the Biological Diversity Act are in addition to and not in derogation of the provisions in any other law relating to forests or wildlife.
6. National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016)replaces the earlier Plan adopted in 1983 and was introduced in response to the need for a change in priorities given the increased commercial use of natural resources, continued growth of human and livestock populations, and changes in consumption patterns.

The Plan most closely represents an actual policy on protection of wildlife. It focuses on strengthening and enhancing the protected area network, on the conservation of Endangered wildlife and their habitats, on controlling trade in wildlife products and on research, education, and training.

The Plan endorses two new protected area categories: “conservation reserves,” referring to corridors connecting protected areas, and “community reserves”, which will allow greater participation of local communities in protected area management through traditional or cultural conservation practices. These new categories of protected areas are likely to bring in corridor areas under protection. The Plan contains various recommendations to address the needs of local communities living outside protected areas and outlines the need for voluntary relocation and rehabilitation of villages within protected areas. The Plan recognizes the need to reduce human-wildlife conflict and emphasizes the establishment of effective compensation mechanisms. It includes the restoration of degraded habitats outside protected areas as a key objective.

7.  National Forest Policy (1998)The National Forest Policy, 1988, (NFP) is primarily concerned with the sustainable use and conservation of forests, and further strengthens the Forest Conservation Act (1980). It marked a significant departure from earlier forest policies, which gave primacy to meeting government interests and industrial requirements for forest products at the expense of local subsistence requirements. The NFP prioritizes the maintenance of ecological balance through the conservation of biological diversity, soil and water management, increase of tree cover, efficient use of forest produce, substitution of wood, and ensuring peoples’ involvement in achieving these objectives. It also includes meeting the natural resource requirements of rural communities as a major objective. The NFP legitimizes the customary rights and concessions of communities living in and around forests, stating that the domestic requirements of the rural poor should take precedence over industrial and commercial demands for forest products.

As can be seen from this article, India has a strong set of laws, Acts and policies for the protection of forests and wildlife.  It is for citizens to study these carefully and apply them appropriately while conducting conservation advocacy campaigns.

Other measures for conservation of wildlife

Conservation Centers in India

A number of Conservation Centers have been set up in India for the purpose of studying, propagating, conserving and for the betterment of the highly endangered species of wildlife, both flora and fauna. These Conservation Centers can be divided into Wildlife Reserves, Conservation Centers and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Conservation Centers in India

• Kaziranga Conservation Center, Assam
• Royal Chitwan Park
• Royal Bardia Park
• Sultanpur Conservation Center
• Sundarbans
• Sanjay Gandhi Conservation CenterBorivli, Mumbai
• Rajaji Conservation Center
• Bharatpur Conservation Center
• Namdapha Conservation Center, Arunachal Pradesh
• Dudhwa Conservation Center, Uttar Pradesh
• Dachigam Conservation Center, Jammu & Kashmir
• Periyar Conservation Center, Kerala
• Bannerghata Conservation Center, Karnataka
• Keibul Lam Jao Conservation Center, Manipur
• Nagarhole Conservation Center, Karnataka
• Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa
• Valley of Flowers Conservation Center, Uttar Pradesh
• Nanda Devi Conservation Center, Uttar Pradesh

 

Famous Wildlife Reserves in India

• Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
• Bandipur Conservation Center, Karnataka
• Bandhavgarh Conservation Center, Madhya Pradesh
• Corbett Conservation Center, U.P
• Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh
• Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
• Manas Tiger Reserve, Assam
• Tadoba Tiger Reserve
• Pench Tiger Reserve
• Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh

Other Wildlife Reserves in India

• Dudhwa Conservation Center, U.P
• Srisailam Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh
• Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam
• The Palamu Tiger Reserve, Bihar
• Chandka Elephant Reserve, Orissa
• Similipal Tiger Reserve, Orissa
• Palamau Tiger Reserve, Bihar

 

NGOs In India

The geographical diversity in India is the corollary to the biodiversity that makes it home to a huge variety of plants, land and marine animals. While the giant Himalayas in the northern part support coniferous vegetation, the eastern states experience a moist tropical climate. On the other hand large parts of western India experience hot desert climate. Surrounded on three sides by the sea, the Indian sub-continent is home to a large variety of marine life as well.

history of killing and poaching of wildlife in India is as long and as varied as its biodiversity. The predominance of princely states, an overdose of invasions and colonialism and a lack of general awareness have stripped India of much of her wealth in every sense. Much of the wealth that India was naturally endowed with has disappeared. Below is a list of the endangered species – whose existence at stake now.

In case you are wondering, let me tell you, this is just the tip of the iceberg. However, it is never too late when the security of our foundation on earth comes under the scythe. A number of NGOs have come forward to put an end to the gory business of poaching and wildlife trafficking in India. With the help of their seminars and symposia they have been successful to a large extent in drawing the administration’s attention towards this problem. Legal activism on their part has led to certain worthwhile legislation in this regard. The ban on ivory and snakeskin trade and the listing of the whale shark in the WPA schedule are some of the legal initiatives taken by the state.

Project Elephant

Project Elephant (PE) is a wildlife conservation project initiated in India in February 1992 with the aim to provide financial and technical support to major elephant bearing States in the country for protection of elephants, their habitats and corridors.

Though this centrally sponsored scheme began with a thrust on elephant conservation in the various elephant populous bio-geographical regions of the country, it expanded its view to adopt a more comprehensive approach to the subsidiary issues of human-elephant conflict and welfare of domesticated elephants.

The Project demarcated 13 States to implement its efforts to maintaining a viable Elephant population in their natural habitat. The states being:

• Andhra pradesh
• Arunachal Pradesh
• Assam
• Jharkhand
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Meghalaya
• Nagaland
• Orissa
• Tamil Nadu
• Uttranchal
• Uttar Pradesh
• West Bengal

For a better understanding of the main activities of the Project, they are listed below:

• Ecologically restoring the existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants
• Developing of scientific methods for conservation of elephant habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India and ensuring their continuance through planned management.
• Promoting measures for mitigating man-elephant conflict in crucial habitats and as far as possible negating the undue pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats
• Ensuring strictest adherence to “No poaching” acts formulated for Wild elephants and minimizing cases of unnatural deaths of elephants due to human or other interference.
• Research on Elephant management related issues.
• Conducting Public education and awareness programmes.
• Providing for veterinary care of the wild elephants.
• Undertaking Eco-development as a major step to fortify their efforts at wildlife conservation.

 

 

Project Tiger

Launched on April 1973 Project Tiger has successfully emerged as one of the champion endeavors of Tiger conservation as formulated by a special task force set up under Wildlife Conservation Act to address the problem of dwindling Tiger population in the country.

Though the initial push for the action was constituted by the growing concern to protect the Royal Bengal Tigers, the disturbing data presented by the 1972 All India Tiger Census, which enumerated the Tiger population at an alarming 1,827 as compared to the figure of 40,000 present at the turn of 20th century called for immediate action to curb the progressive decline of wilderness resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger habitats. Thus following steps were taken:

• Thus, a national ban was imposed on Tiger Hunting in 1970
• The Wildlife Protection Act came into force in 1972
• Project Tiger was launched in 1973 and various tiger reserves were created in the country based on a ‘core-buffer’ strategy.

The management strategy of each Tiger Reserve functioned in accordance to certain core principles mentioned below:

• All forms of human exploitation and biotic disturbance to be eliminated from the core zone and any activities carried out in the buffer zone should not impeach the wildlife habitat.
• Any habitat management carried out should be subject to redressing the damage caused by human interference in order to restore the ecosystem to its original state.
• Changes in flora and fauna are to be documented for research purpose.

In the initial phase of Project Tiger only 9 Tiger Reserves were established in different States during the period of 1973-74 by the joint effort of Central and State Governments, namely:

• Manas (Assam)
• Palamau (Bihar)
• Similipal (Orissa)
• Corbett (U.P.)
• Kanha (M.P.)
• Melghat (Maharashtra)
• Bandipur (Karnataka)
• Ranthambhore (Rajasthan)
• Sunderbans (West Bengal)

At present the number has grown to 28 reserves in 2006 with a total Tiger population of over 1000 tigers from a mere 268 in 9 reserves in 1972.

Being at the apex of the food chain, a stable Tiger population assures us of an enduring eco-system, well equipped to sustain various organisms at different levels. This is exactly what Project Tiger has accomplished by achieving a substantial increase in the tiger population.

Thus, ‘Project Tiger’ basically translates into the conservation of the entire eco-system as apart from tigers, all other wild animals population have also increased in the project areas.

In the subsequent ‘Five Year Plans’, the main thrust as been given to enlarge the core and buffer zones in certain reserves, intensification of protection and eco-development in the buffer zones of existing tiger reserves and creation of additional tiger reserves and strengthening of the research activities.

 

Conservation History of Gir National Park

The Conservation History of Gir National Park deals with the conservation of Asiatic lions, whose population had dropped tremendously in the early 20th century. Gir National Park is a beautiful park dotted with deciduous forests, interspersed with semi-evergreen and evergreen flora, acacia, scrub jungle, grasslands and rocky hills, along with an abundance of fauna. Sprawling over an area of 1412 sq km, the park is one of the most charming National Parks in India.

The conservation history of Gir National Park takes us back to the early 1900s. At that time, the count of lions had dropped down to just 15 through slaughter for trophy hunting. When the British viceroys brought this matter to the attention of the Nawab of Junagadh, he ensured the protection of the park. Lord Curzon, especially, requested the Nawab to conserve the lions. Thus, the forest area of Gir and its lions were declared as protected by the Nawab. A ban was also imposed on the shooting of lions.

The conservation history of Gir National Park also includes other factors that make conservation of the park essential. Gir is the largest compact tract of dry deciduous forest in the semi arid western part of India. It has the maximum number of carnivores, and also has the largest population of marsh crocodiles in the country. The park provides shelter to all these forests and animals.

 

Non-government involvement

As major development agencies became discouraged with the public sector of environmental conservation in the late 1980s, these agencies began to lean their support towards the “private sector” or non-government organizations (NGOs).^[7]In a World Bank Discussion Paper it is made apparent that “the explosive emergence of nongovernmental organizations” was widely known to government policy makers. Seeing this rise in NGO support, the U.S. Congress made amendments to the Foreign Assistance Act in 1979 and 1986 “earmarking U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) funds for biodiversity”. From 1990 moving through recent years environmental conservation in the NGO sector has become increasingly more focused on the political and economic impact of USAID given towards the “Environment and Natural Resources”. After the terror attacks on the World Trade Centers on September 11, 2001 and the start of former President Bush’s War on Terror, maintaining and improving the quality of the environment and natural resources became a “priority” to “prevent international tensions” according to the Legislation on Foreign Relations Through 2002and section 117 of the 1961 Foreign Assistance Act. Furthermore, in 2002 U.S. Congress modified the section on endangered species of the previously amended Foreign Assistance Act.

Some of the NGOs that have played an active role in the conservation and preservation of wildlife in India are:

• TRAFFIC India fights wildlife trafficking in India
• Wildlife Trust of India have been very vocal about the Red Jungle fowl and Golden Haired Langur
• Wildlife First works for the conservation of wilslife in Karnataka
• Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) collaborate with state governments to monitor illegal wildlife trade
• Greenpeace

 

Active non-government organizations

Many NGOs exist to actively promote, or be involved with wildlife conservation:

• The Nature Conservancyis a US charitable environmental organization that works to preserve the plants, animals, and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive.
• World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. It is the world’s largest independent conservation organization with over 5 million supporters worldwide, working in more than 90 countries, supporting around 1300[4] conservation and environmental projects around the world. It is a charity, with approximately 60% of its funding coming from voluntary donations by private individuals. 45% of the fund’s income comes from the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States.
• WildTeam
• Wildlife Conservation Society
• Audubon Society
• Traffic (conservation programme)
• Born Free Foundation
• WildEarth Guardians

 

Each landform has its unique physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and agent(s). Every landform has a beginning. Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size and nature slowly or fast due to continued action of geomorphic processes and agents. Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new modifications in the landforms.

Evolution

It implies stages of transformation of either a part of the earth’s surface from one landform into another or transformation of individual landforms after they are once formed. That means, each and every landform has a history of development and changes through time. A landmass passes through stages of development somewhat comparable to the stages of life — youth, mature and old age.

Geomorphic Agents

Changes on the surface of the earth owe mostly to erosion by various geomorphic agents. Running water, ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are powerful    erosional and depositional agents shaping and changing the surface of the earth aided by weathering and mass wasting processes. These geomorphic agents acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to sequential development of landforms.

Fluvial landforms

The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradation work (deposition) of running water is called fluvial landforms.

These landforms result from the action of surface flow/run-off or stream flow (water flowing through a channel under the influence of gravity). The creative work of fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases—erosion, transportation and deposition.

The landforms created by a stream can be studied under erosional and depositional categories.

Erosional category

Valleys, gorge and Canyon

The extended depression on ground through which a stream flows throughout its course is called a river valley. A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides. A canyon is characterized by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge.

At a young stage, The profile of valley  is typically ‘V’ shaped. As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion becomes prominent and the valley floor flattens out. The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.

Potholes, Plunge pools

Potholes are more or less circular depressions over the rocky beds of hills streams.Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by flowing water. Consequently, the depressions grow in dimensions to form potholes.Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes commonly found at the foot of a waterfall. They are formed because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.

Incised or Entrenched Meanders

They are very deep wide meanders (loop-like channels) found cut in hard rocks.In the course of time, they deepen and widen to form gorges or canyons in hard rock.The difference between a normal meander and an incised/entrenched meander is that the latter found on hard rocks.

River Terraces

They are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plains.They are basically the result of vertical erosion by the stream. When the terraces are of the same elevation on either side of the river, they are called as paired terraces.When the terraces are seen only on one side with none on the other or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, they are called as unpaired terraces.

Depositional Features

Alluvial Fans

They are found in the middle course of a river at the foot of slope/ mountains.When the stream moves from the higher level break into foot slope plain of low gradient, it loses its energy needed to transport much of its load.Thus, they get dumped and spread as a broad low to the high cone-shaped deposits called an alluvial fan.

Deltas

They are found in the mouth of the river, which is the final location of depositional activity of a river. \The coarser material settle out first and the finer materials like silt and clay are carried out into the sea.

 

 Flood Plains, Natural Levees

Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of a river.The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood water away from the river.

 

 Meanders and oxbow lakes

• They are formed basically because of three reasons: (i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradient to work laterally on the banks; (ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the bank with many irregularities; (iii) Coriolis force acting on fluid water deflecting it like deflecting the wind.
• The concave bank of a meander is known as cut-off bank and the convex bank is known as a slip-off
• As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection point and are left as oxbow lakes.

Braided Channels

When selective deposition of coarser materials causes the formation of a central bar, it diverts the flow of river towards the banks, which increases lateral erosion. Similarly, when more and more such central bars are formed, braided channels are formed. Riverine Islands are the result of braided channels.

 

Karst Topography

Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through the process of solution and deposition is called as Karst Topography (Karst region in the Balkans).

Sinkholes

A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the bottom.When as sinkhole is formed solely through the process of solution, it is called as a solution sink.When several sink holes join together to form valley of sinks, they are called as blind valleys.

 

Caves

In the areas where there are alternative beds of rocks (non-soluble) with limestone or dolomite in between or in areas where limestone are dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent. Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged Caves having an opening at both the ends are called tunnels.

Stalactites and stalagmites

They are formed when the calcium carbonates dissolved in groundwater get deposited once the water evaporates.These structures are commonly found in limestone caves.Stalactites are calcium carbonate deposits hanging as icicles while Stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits which rise up from the floor.When a stalactite and stalagmite happened to join together, it gives rise to pillars or columns of different diameters.

GLACIERS

Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cirque

Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.

Horns and Serrated Ridges

Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called horns form.

 

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and steep sides. There may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris within the valleys. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.

 

Depositional landforms

 

Moraines

They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge. deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground moraines.

 

Eskers

When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins or even moves through holes in the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker.

Outwash Plains

The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.

Drumlins

Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.

 

Arid Landforms

Wind is one of the  dominant agents in hot deserts. The wind action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features in the deserts.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Pediments and Pediplains

. Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains called pediplains.

Playas

Plains are by far the most prominent landforms in the deserts. In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of shallow lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to evaporation and quite often the playas contain good deposition of salts.

. Deflation Hollows and Caves

Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depressions called deflation hollows. Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are created, and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.

Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are worn out quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above. Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table top and quite often, the remnants stand out like pedestals.

Depositional Landforms

When the wind slows or begins to die down, depending upon sizes of grains and their critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.

Sand Dunes

Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation are equally important. There can be a great variety of dune forms Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings directed away from wind .Parabolic dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.

Seif is similar to barchan with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point. Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height. Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when the wind direction is constant and the source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the wind direction.

Forests – Natural Vegetation of India

 

Table of Contents

• 1Forests – Natural Vegetation of India
• 2Classification of Natural Vegetation of India
• 3Moist Tropical Forests
  • 1Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests
  • 2Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
  • 3Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
  • 4Littoral and Swamp Forests
• 4Dry Tropical Forests
  • 1Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
    • 1.1Casuarina plantation
  • 2Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
  • 3Tropical Thorn Forests
• 5Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
  • 1Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests
  • 2Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
  • 3Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
• 6Montane Temperate Forests
  • 1Montane Wet Temperate Forests
  • 2Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
  • 3Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
• 7Alpine Forests

Forests – Natural Vegetation of India:Types and distribution

types

• Climate, soil and topographyare the major factors that influence Natural Vegetation of a place.
• The main climatic factors arerainfall and temperature. The amount of annual rainfall has a great bearing on the type of vegetation.

Annual Rainfall	Type of Vegetation
200 cm or more	Evergreen Rain Forests
100 to 200 cm	Monsoon Deciduous Forests
50 to 100 cm	Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna
25 to 50 cm	Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)
Below 25 cm	Desert (Arid)

• Temperature is the major factor in Himalayas and other hilly regions with an elevation of more than 900 metres.
• As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan region the vegetal cover changes with altitude fromtropical to sub-tropical, temperate and finally alpine.
• Soil is an equally determining factor in few regions.Mangrove forests, swamp forests are some of the examples where soil is the major factor.
• Topography is responsible for certain minor types e.g.alpine flora, tidal forests, etc..

Classification of Natural Vegetation of India

• Classification of Natural Vegetation of India is primarily based on spatial and annual variations in rainfall. Temperature, soil and topography are also considered.
• India’s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.

A. Moist Tropical Forests

• Tropical Wet Evergreen
• Tropical Semi-Evergreen
• Tropical Moist Deciduous
• Littoral and Swamp

B. Dry Tropical Forests

• Tropical Dry Evergreen
• Tropical Dry Deciduous
• Tropical Thorn

C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests

• Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
• Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
• Sub-tropical dry evergreen

D. Montane Temperate Forests

• Montane Wet Temperate
• Himalayan Moist Temperate
• Himalayan Dry Temperate

E. Alpine Forests

• Sub-Alpine
• Moist Alpine scrub
• Dry Alpine scrub

Forest Type in India	% of Total Area
Tropical Moist Deciduous	37
Tropical Dry Deciduous	28
Tropical Wet Evergreen	8
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill	6
Tropical Semi-Evergreen	4
Rest below 4 %

Moist Tropical Forests

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm
• The annual temperature is about 25°-27°C
• The average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent and
• The dry season is distinctly short.

Characteristics

• Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not shed their leaves together.
• Mesosphytic:Plants adopted to neither too dry nor too wet type climate.

What are mesophytes? ·         Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water lily or pondweed, that grow in saturated soil or water, or xerophytic plants, such as cactus, that grow in extremely dry soil, mesophytes are ordinary plants that exist between the two extremes. ·         Mesophytic environments are marked by average to hot temperatures and soil that is neither too dry nor too wet.

• Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres in height.
• Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
• All plants struggle upwards (mostephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement. The entire morphology looks like a green carpet when viewed from above.

• Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy. The undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.

Distribution

• Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level).
• Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
• In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Timber

• Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and durable.
• It has high commercial value but it is highly challenging to exploit dueto dense undergrowth, absence of pure stands and lack of transport facilities [Read previous posts on Climatic regions to understand how lumbering industry works in Equatorial Rainforests (hardwood) and Taiga Climatic (softwood) conditions].
• The important species of these forests aremahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo 

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests

• They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical deciduous forests.
• They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm
• Mean annual temperature varies from 24°C to 27°C
• The relative humidity is about 75 per cent
• The dry season is not short like in tropical evergreen forests.

Distribution

• Western coast
• Assam
• Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas
• Odisha and

Characteristics

• The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.
• They are moregregarious [living in flocks or colonies – more pure stands] than the wet evergreen forests.
• These forests are characterized by many species.
• Trees usually havebuttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes.

Buttressed Trunks

• The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo – Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc. – Himalayan region.

Timber

• Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests are less dense withmore pure stands (timber industry here is better than in evergreen forests).

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.
• Mean annual temperature of about 27°C
• The average annual relative humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.
• Spring (between winter and summer) and summer are dry.

Characteristics

• The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient moisture is not available.
• The general appearance is bare in extreme summers (April-May).
• Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
• Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth.
• These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests but large tracts under these forests have been cleared for cultivation.

Distribution

• Belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
• A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
• Manipur and Mizoram.
• Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• Chota Nagpur Plateau.
• Most of Odisha.
• Parts of West Bengal and
• Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Timber

• These provide valuable timer like
• The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo, etc.
• It iscomparatively easy to exploit these forests due to their high degree of gregariousness (more pure stands).

Littoral and Swamp Forests

• They can survive and grow both in fresh as well asbrackish water(The mixture of seawater and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
• Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone totidal influences (delta or tidal forests).
• Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places along the coast.
• Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
• Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
• The most pronounced and the densest is theSunderban in the Ganga delta where the predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).

Timber

• It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building purposes and making boats.
• The important species found in these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw pines, canes and palms, etc.

Dry Tropical Forests

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution

• Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the north-east monsoon winds in October – December].
• Mean annual temperature is about 28°C.
• The mean humidity is about 75 per cent.
• The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.

Characteristics

• Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy.
• Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
• The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc.
• Most of the land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture orcasuarina plantations.

Casuarina plantation ·         It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance. ·         They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid regions. ·         They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in height on an average. · · · Casuarina plantation Distribution ·         Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Benefits ·         Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities. ·         Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force. ·         It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its ornamental appearance. ·         It provides top quality firewood. ·         The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture of paper for writing, printing, and wrapping. ·         It is got some serious medicinal values as well. Wasteland development ·         The characteristics which make it a suitable species for wasteland development include adaptability to wide range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought resistant, ability to reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes. ·         Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons, sesamum, and pulses can also be raised along with the plantation.

Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.

Characteristics

• These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season.
• The major difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
• They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous on the wetter side and thorn forests on the drier side.
• They have closed but uneven canopy.
• The forests are composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous trees rising up to a height of 20 metres.
• Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass and climbers.

Distribution

• They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal.
• The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo,red sanders, laurel, satinwood, etc.
• Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
• These forests have suffer from over grazing, fire, etc.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
• Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
• Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.

Characteristics

• The trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum) and widely scattered.
• Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent.
• The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.

Distribution

• Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts of Saurashtra.
• Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert.
• Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• The important species are neem, babul, cactii, etc.

Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests

Climatic conditions

• Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.
• Average annual temperature is 18°-21°C.
• Humidity is 80 per cent.

Distribution

• Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m.

Characteristics

• Forests of evergreen species.
• Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
• Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that grows non-parasitically on a tree or other plant] are common.
• These forests are not so distinct in the southern parts of the country. They occur only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level.
• It is a “stunted rain-forest” and is not so luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
• The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravali Range carry sub-types of these forests.

Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests

Distribution

• Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.
• Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.

Timber

• Chir or Chilis the most dominant tree which forms pure stands.
• It providesvaluable timber for furniture, boxes and buildings.
• It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.

Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution

• Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000 metres above sea level.

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December-March).
• The summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold.

Characteristics

• Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
• Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.

Montane Temperate Forests

Montane Wet Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level
• Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm
• Mean annual temperature is about 11°C to 14°C and the
• Average relative humidity is over 80 per cent.

Distribution

• Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.

Characteristics

• These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have large girth.
• Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes.
• The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6 metres.
• Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.

Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm

Distribution

• Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
• Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim.

Characteristics

• Mainly composed ofconiferous species.
• Species occur in mostly pure strands.
• Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
• Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees.
• They form high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth including oaks, rhododendrons and some bamboos.

Timber

• It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway sleepers.

Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow.

Characteristics

• Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the main trees.

Distribution

• Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west monsoon is very feeble.
• Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.

Alpine Forests

• Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.
• These forests can be divided into: (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry alpine scrub.
• The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine scrub and grasslands.
• It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees attain a height of about 30 m while the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
• Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species.
• The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres and extends upto
• The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres above sea level and found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, artemesia etc. are important species.