indian history

Wahabi	Shah Abdul Aziz & Saiyed Ahmad Raebarelvi. Objective was to reform the Muslim
Movement	society& convert ‘Dur-ul-Harb’ (Non-Islamic community) into ‘Dar-ul-Islam’.
	Origianlly the movement was started in Arabia by Muhammad Ibn-Aba-e-Wahid.
	Its main centre was Patna, Sittana (NW province).
Kuka	Bhai Ram Singh (Disciple of Bhai Balak Singh). It is also called Namdhari Mission.
Movement	Bhai Ram Singh asked his followers to worship cow & run langars, wear white clothes
	& not use any foreign commodity or service. Bhai Ram Singh was deported to Burma.
Santhal	Siddhu, Khanhu, Chand & Bhareo (four sons of Chulu Santhal of Raj Mahal district).
Rebellion	Under the Permanent Settlement of 1793 the lands of Santhal passed to Zamidars &
1855-56	later to European Indigo planters. 10,000 santhals were killed in this rebellion. After
	this the area was put under the direct control of the Governor General & was named
	Santhal Paragana.

Vasudeo Balwant Phadke was born in Maharashtra. He left the army & became a revolutionary. Later deported to Aden & died in 1883. He may be justly called the father of militant nationalism in India.

 

Kisan	Launched by Lala Lajpat Rai & Ajit Singh. The passing of the 1906 Punjab Land
Movements	Revenue Act & heavy increase in water tax caused panic. The poem of Banke Dayal,
	‘Pagri Sambhal O Jatta’ became famous. Lala & Ajit Singh were sentenced to 6 months
	prison. Later the DSP of Layalpur Clough was assassinated. Ajit Singh escaped to
	France while Bhai Parmanand’s house search yielded a book on bomb making.
Moplah	Khilafat movement in Malabar incited communal feelings in Muslim peasants directed
Rebellion	towards Hindu land holders.

 

The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable development in art, sculpture and architecture. The Gandhara School of Art and Sculp­ture marked a happy blending of the Graceo-Romano-Buddhist style and techniques. The distinguishing features of the Gandhara Sculp­ture owed their origin to Greek and Roman styles yet the art essen­tially was Indian in spirit. The Gandhara artists had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an India.

The most remarkable contribu­tion of the Gandhara School of art is to be seen in the evolution of the image of Buddha, perhaps in imitation of the Greek God Apollo. Images of Buddha and Bodhisatva illustrating the past and present lives of Buddha were executed in black stone. The figures show an excellent idea of human anatomy that swayed the artists.

These works of art offer a striking contrast to similar art that we witness else­where in India. The smooth round features of the idealised human figures, draped in transparent and semi-transparent cloth closely fit­ting to the body and revealing its outline were due to the influ­ence of the Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and the Roman Empire.

The images of Buddha pertaining to the Gandhara school cen­tres of which were Gandhara, Jalalabad, Hadda and Baniyan in Afghanistan, Peshawar and Swat Valley, were more animated and anatomically perfect than those found in other parts of India. While the former are more beautiful physically and accurate in anatomical details as such more realistic, the Indian art and sculpture which pro­duced the images of Buddha were more idealistic giving a spiritual and sublime expression to the images.

The technique of the Gan­dhara School of art of the Kushana period spread through China to the Far East and influenced the art of China and Japan. The Gandhara art, according to V. A. Smith, was based on the cosmopolitan art of the Asia Minor and the Roman Empire.

There were also purely Indian schools of art in India during the period of the Kushanas. There were the schools of art at Amaravati, Jagayyapeta and Nagarjunikonda. In the Amaravati human figures are characterised by slim, blithe features and have been repre­sented in most difficult poses and curves. The technique of art reach­ed a high standard of development. Plants and flowers, particularly lotuses, have been represented in the most perfect, lifelike manner.

Two Chaityas and a Stupa discovered at Nagarjunikonda are the relics of the indigenous school of art and show a high standard of development. The limestone panel of figures depicting the nativity of Buddha is an excellent piece of sculpture of the Kushana period which was entirely indigenous.

Architecture of the Kushana period was not so remarkable as the sculpture of the period. There were beautiful temples, monas­teries, Stupas which indicate considerable development during the period although the technique of architecture did not attain the standard of excellence of sculpture. The famous tower of Kanishka at Purushapura (Peshawar) was one of the wonders of the world. Much of the architectural specimens of the period perished with time.

Caves hewn in solid rock with pillars and sculptures, hundreds of which have been found in different parts of the Kushana Empire show a great improvement upon the technique of excavation that was in use during the time of Asoka. A Chaitya with rows of columns on two sides was a fine work of art of sculpture and architecture. The Chaitya at Karle is an excellent illustration.

Fa-hien who visited India during the rule of Chandragupta II {5th century) was struck with wonder to find a large number of Stupas, dagobas (small stupa), Chaityas and images of Buddha carved out of stone during the Kushana period.

There has been a sharp difference of opinion about the celebrity, and the extent of influence of the Gandhara art upon the Indian art during the reign of the Kushanas. Modern scholars think that the Gandhara School of sculpture has attained a celebrity perhaps beyond its merits.

According to some European scholars, the Gandhara School of art was the only school in Ancient India which can claim a place in the domain of art. There are others who are of the opinion that the source of subsequent development of Indian art as well as of the Far East was the Gandhara School of art which developed as a result of a happy blending of the Graco-Romano-Buddhist art.

But despite the foreign influence upon the school of Gandhara art, scholars like Havell, Will Durant, R. C. Majumdar and others are of the opinion that the influence, Hellenistic and Roman, upon the Indian art which was the Gandhara School of art was technical but spirit and the subject matter of the art was purely Indian.

1. D. Banerjee’s view that the Gandhara art influenced the Indian art for nearly five centuries to follow is untenable on the ground that there were indigenous schools of art at Ainaravati, Nagarjunkonda, etc. where there was no influence of Gandhara School of art. The influence of the Gandhara art failed to penetrate into the interior of India and had no influence on the later development of the Indian, art. But the Gandhara School of art achieved a grand success in. becoming the parent of the Buddhist art of Eastern and Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan.

Literature:

The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable development of literature and Sanskrit language. Under the patronage enjoyed by the scholars and Buddhist philosophers of the time a massive develop­ment in secular and religious literature took place. A large number of standard works in Sanskrit language were written during the period.

Asvaghosha’s Buddhacharita, Saudarananda Kavya, Vajrasuchi, Sariputta Prakarana, Vasumitra’s Mahabibhasa—regarded as the Bud­dhist encyclopaedia, Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika-Sutra in which the theory of relativity was propounded, Charaka’s work on medicine, etc. contributed to the fund of human knowledge. Under the Kushanas the royal court became a seat of luminaries mentioned above as also of the Political Scientist Mathara, Greek engineer Agesilaus, etc.

Treaty of Pondicherry						After the II Carinatic war. Muhammad Ali, son of late Anwar-ud-din was
			accepted as the Nawab of Carinatic.
Treaty of Mangalore						Signed between Tipu & British in 1784. Under this Tipu withdrew his army
1784							from Carinatic & English withdrew theirs from the Carinatic.
Treaty of Seringapattam						After III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu had to pay heavy war indemnity & send as
1792							hostages his two sons to the English. Half of his territory was ceded. He paid
			the war indemnity & his two sons were released.
Treaty of Amritsar 1809						Signed between British & Ranjit Singh in which the latter recognized their
			rights in the Cis-Sutlej areas.
Treaty of Sagauli						After Anglo Nepalese war. The Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai
			region& ceded claim over the areas of Kumaon & Garhwal to the British.
Treaty of Lahore						After the first Anglo Sikh war. The territories lying to the south of river
			Sutlej  were given to the company.

	1713-20		Balaji Vishwanath		Shahu appointed him as the Peshwa.
	1720-40		Baji Rao I		Baji Rao I succeded who was the most charismatic leader in
					Maratha history after Shivaji.He conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand
					& even raided Delhi.
	1740-61		Balaji Baji Rao		Son of Baji Rao I  Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from
					the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II) who defeated
					the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a
					terrible blow at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761-Panipat
	1761-72		Madhav Rao I		Defeated Nizam, Mysore, Rohillas, Rajputs Jats. In 1771 he
					confined the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II  by giving pension.
	1772-73		Narayan Rao		Short tenure. Tussle with Ragunath Rao over Peshwa claim.
	1774-95		Madhav Rao II		Became Peshwa after treaty of Salbai supported by Nana
					Phadnavis.  In the meantime Mahadji Scindia who had brought
					Shah Alam under his control became the actual ruler of Delhi till
					his death in 1794.
	1796-1818		Baji Rao II		Incompetent son of Raghunath Rao (who was had earlier stuggled
					with Narayan Rao to become Peshwa & sided with Britishers)

 

 

 

	Bihar			After Saadat Khan, *Safdarjung* became the king  who was an impartial ruler &
				carried out many reforms & was made the wazir of mughal empire. Shuja-ud-Daula
				succeded him to throne. He was also made the wazir of mughal empire but he sided
				with Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat.
	Bengal			Murshid Quli Khan was an able ruler. Later his son in law Shuja-ud-din & his son
				Sarfaraz came in that order. Sarfaraz was defeated by Alivardi Khan of Bihar. Later
				Alivardi Khan was defeated by Raghuji Bhonsle & forced him to surrender Orissa.
				After the death of Alivardi khan his grandson Siraj-ud-daula tool over who lost to
				Britishers under Lord Clive.
	Hyderabad			Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724.
	Mysore &			Since the downfall of the Vijaynagar empire Wodeyar dynasty was ruling. But in
	Haider Ali			the 18th century two minister Nanjaraj & Devaraj usurped power early reducing the
				King Krishna Raj to a puppet. Haider Ali rose to become the Commander-in-Chief
				of the Mysore army & became the sultan after Nanjraj’s death. He was defeated by
				Peshwa Madhav Rao.
	Tipu Sultan			He defeated the combined forces of Marathas & Nizam in 1787 & soon after
				claimed himself Padshah at Seringapattam. He attempted to reduce the custom of
				jagirs& hereditary possession of poligars (small chieftans). He was a staunch
				muslim. He donated money to hindus but later got the temples abolished.
	Travancore			Martanda Verma
	Rajput States			Marwar (Ajit Singh), Amer (Sawai Jai Singh)
	Rohilkhand			Area between Agra & Awadh. Muhammad Khan Bangash ruled who was defeated
				by Maharana Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand with the help of Marathas.
	Sikhs			Ruler of one of the 12 Misls called Sukarchakiya. He with the help of his brave
				commander Hari Singh Nalwa won Multan, Kashmir & Peshawar.

 

The Lichchhavis (also Lichchavi, Licchavi) were an important member of the Vajjian confederacy. The early Indian traditions describe the Lichchhavis as Kshatriyas. Scholars reject the theory of foreign origin of the Lichchhavis on the strength of these traditions. But they were degraded to the status of fallen Kshatriyas due to their championship of non-Brahmanical creeds like Jainism and Buddhism.

Rise of the Licchavi Power

In the 6th century B.C. the Licchavi power was firmly established. Though the Lichchhavis belonged to the Vajji confederacy, they had autonomous status. Their capital was Vaisali.

Originally, they seem to have an independent status. The Buddhist records preserve the names of important Licchavi leaders among whom the name of Chetaka deserves special mention. Chetaka’s sister Trisala was the mother of Mahavira, the preacher of Jainism. Chetaka’s daughter Chellana was married to king Bimbisara of Magadha. The Lichchhavis thus appear to be highly connected.

The Magadha-Licchavi Struggle-fall of the Licchavis

The Licchavis turned to be great rivals of Magadhan monarchy. In the reign of Bimbisara of Magadha, they invaded the Magadhan kingdom. In the reign of Ajatasatru, a protracted war began between Magadha and the Lichchhavis. The latter were united with the Vajjis in a confederacy. In the struggle that followed the Lichchhavis and the Vajjis were destroyed.

The causes of the Magadha-Lichchavi war were many. Ajatasatru wanted to take revenge on the Lichchhavis, as their chief Chetaka had refused to extradite Ajatasatru’s step brothers. They had escaped to Vaisali (Licchavi capital) with the royal elephant and family jewels and were granted political asylum. The real cause of the Magadha-Licchavi war was the aggressive imperialism of Magadha against the neighboring republic. The war continued for sixteen years. The Lichchhavis built a mighty alliance with the Vajjis and the other thirty six Ganarajas and also with the kingdom of Kasi-Kosala against Magadha. But the ministers of Ajatasatru sowed seeds of discord among the members of the anti-Magadhan confederacy and destroyed their unity. Ultimately the Vajjian confederacy was destroyed by Ajatasatru. The Vajji territory was annexed to Magadha.

The Licchavi’s republican constitution

There were two Systems of government in the Eastern region. The states of Anga, Magadha, Vatsa etc. were monarchies. Those of Kasf, Kaulala, Videha etc. on the other band were republics. Two of these republics were quite well known, the Republics of the Vajjis or Licchavis and that of the Mallas. Republics were later developments of monarchies and the precursors of democracies. The Licchavis founded their Republic with a view to consolidating their political power. The credit for its foundation goes to Cetaka, who was a wise and valorous king of Videha. He was also the President of the whole Republic. This Republic was the union of eighteen political units, nine of which belonged to the Licchavis and the remaining nine to the Mallas.

The Kings of each unit comprising the Vajji Republic were called Gananayakas. The council of the Gananayakas was called Gana Sabha or Republican Council. It made the constitution and the laws. The individual units were governed in accordance with the constitution of the Gana or the Union. The Vajji Republic was rich and well developed in the fields of Politics, Economics, Society and Religion. The monarchists were highly jealous of this powerful Republic. They were bent upon destroying it. But they were helpless in the face of the powerful Vajjian army.

Videha with its capital at Vaisali was the biggest unit. Vaisali was divided into three zones. The first zone consisted of seven thousand residential houses with golden domes. The middle of the town consisted of fourteen thousand houses with silver domes. The third zone consisted of twenty-one thousand houses with copper domes.

These zones were inhabited by the high, middle and lower classes respectively. Vaisali was not only the capital of the Licchavis, it was the capital of the entire Vajji Republic. It was enclosed within four city walls, each at a distance of two miles from the others. It had several ramparts and entrance-gates. The Republic was a confederation of six clans viz. the Ugras, the Bhojas, the Rajanyas, ihe Iksvakus (the Licchavis), the Jnatasand the Kauravas.

The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy. Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE) started a rapid expansion of the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It marked the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas. Even more importantly, it began a period of overall prosperity and growth that continued for the next two and half centuries which came to be known as a “Golden Age” in India’s history. But the seed of the empire was sown at least two generations earlier than this when Srigupta, then only a regional monarch, set off the glory days of this mighty dynasty in circa 240 CE.

GUPTA PERIOD – EARLY DAYS TO THE ZENITH

Not much is known about the early days of this Gupta dynasty. The travel diaries and writings of Buddhist monks who frequented this part of the world are the most trustworthy sources of information we have about those days. The travelogues of Fa Hien (Faxian, circa 337 – 422 CE), Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang, 602 – 664 CE) and Yijing (I Tsing, 635 – 713 CE) prove to be invaluable in this respect. The Gupta Empire during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 – 280 CE) comprised only Magadha and probably a part of Bengal too. Like the Mauryas and other Magadha kings who preceded him, Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, close to modern day Patna. Srigupta was succeeded to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha (circa 280 – 319 CE).

CHANDRAGUPTA I

From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned the benefit of maintaining a cavalry and Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha, made effective use of his strong army. Through his marriage with Licchhavi Princess Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the ownership of rich mines full of iron ore adjacent to his kingdom. Metallurgy was already at an advanced stage and forged iron was not only used to meet the internal demands, but also became a valuable trade commodity. The territorial heads ruling over various parts of India could not counter the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and had to surrender before him. It is conjectured that at the end of his reign, the boundary of the Gupta Empire already extended to Allahabad.

SAMUDRAGUPTA

Samudragupta (circa 335 – 375 CE), Chandragupta I’s son who ascended the throne next, was a military genius and he continued the growth of the kingdom. After conquering the remainder of North India, Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India and added a portion of it to his empire by the end of his Southern Campaign. It is generally believed that during his time the Gupta Empire spanned from the Himalayas in north to the mouth of Krishna and Godavari rivers in the South, from Balkh, Afghanistan in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east.

Samudragupta was very attentive to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special care to follow Kautilya’s (350 – 275 BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and political treatise that has clear instructions about how a monarchy should be governed) closely. He donated large sums of money for various philanthropic purposes, including the promotion of education. Besides being a courageous king and able administrator, he was a poet and musician. The large number of gold coins circulated by him showcases his multifaceted talent. An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar is most eloquent about his humane qualities. Samudragupta also believed in promoting goodwill among various religious communities. He gave, for example, Meghavarna, king of Ceylon, permission and support for the construction of a monastery in Bodh Gaya.

CHANDRAGUPTA II

A short struggle for power appears to have ensued after the reign of Samudragupta. His eldest son Ramagupta became the next Gupta king. This was noted by 7th century CE Sanskrit author Banbhatta in his biographical work, Harshacharita. What followed next forms a part of Sanskrit poet and playwright Visakh Dutta’s drama DeviChandra Guptam. As the story goes, Ramagupta was soon overcome by a Scythian king of Mathura. But the Scythian king, besides the kingdom itself, was interested in Queen Dhruvadevi who was also a renowned scholar. To maintain peace Ramagupta gave up Dhruvadevi to his opponent. It is then Ramagupta’s younger brother Chandragupta II with a few of his close aides went to meet the enemy in disguise. He rescued Dhruvadevi and assassinated the Scythian king. Dhruvadevi publicly condemned her husband for his behaviour. Eventually, Ramagupta was killed by Chandragupta II who also married Dhruvadevi sometime later.

Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa 380 – 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able leader and skilled administrator. By defeating the satrap of Saurashtra, he further expanded his kingdom to the coastline of the Arabian Sea. His courageous pursuits earned him the title of Vikramaditya. To rule the vast empire more efficiently, Chandragupta II founded his second capital in Ujjain. He also took care to strengthen the navy. The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara consequently became busy hubs of maritime trade. He was a great patron of art and culture too. Some of the greatest scholars of the day including the navaratna (nine gems) graced his court. Numerous charitable institutions, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his generosity. Rest houses for travellers were set up by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle during this time and unprecedented progress marked all areas of life.

POLITICS & ADMINISTRATION

Great tact and foresight were shown in the governance of the vast empire. The efficiency of their martial system was well known. The large kingdom was divided into smaller pradesha (provinces) and administrative heads were appointed to take care of them. The kings maintained discipline and transparency in the bureaucratic process. Criminal law was mild, capital punishment was unheard of and judicial torture was not practised. Fa Hien called the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra as picturesque with the latter being described as a city of flowers. People could move around freely. Law and order reigned and, according to Fa Hien, incidents of theft and burglary were rare.

The following also speaks volumes about the prudence of the Gupta kings. Samudragupta acquired a far greater part of southern India than he cared to incorporate into his empire. Therefore, in quite a few cases, he returned the kingdom to the original kings and was satisfied only with collecting taxes from them. He reckoned that the great distance between that part of the country and his capital Pataliputra would hinder the process of good governance.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

People led a simple life. Commodities were affordable and all round prosperity ensured that their requirements were met easily. They preferred vegetarianism and shunned alcoholic beverages. Gold and silver coins were issued in great numbers which is a general indicative of the health of the economy. Trade and commerce flourished both within the country and outside. Silk, cotton, spices, medicine, priceless gemstones, pearl, precious metal and steel were exported by sea. Highly evolved steelcraft led everyone to a belief that Indian iron was not subject to corrosion. The 7 m (23 ft) high Iron Pillar in Qutub complex, Delhi, built around 402 CE, is a testimony to this fact. Trade relations with Middle East improved. Ivory, tortoise shell etc. from Africa, silk and some medicinal plants from China and the Far East were high on the list of imports. Food, grain, spices, salt, gems and gold bullion were primary commodities of inland trade.

RELIGION

Gupta kings knew that the well-being of the empire lie in maintaining a cordial relationship between the various communities. They were devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the Supreme Creator as Vishnu) themselves, yet that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist monasteries received liberal donations. Yijing observed how the Gupta kings erected inns and rest houses for Buddhist monks and other pilgrims. As a pre-eminent site of education and cultural exchange Nalanda prospered under their patronage. Jainism flourished in northern Bengal, Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and Gujarat. Several Jain establishments existed across the empire and Jain councils were a regular occurrence.

LITERATURE, SCIENCES & EDUCATION

Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights than before. Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba. Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti, Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma penned Panchatantra. Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and science.

Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology. Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of geometry, trigonometry and cosmology. Shanku devoted himself to creating texts about Geography. Dhanvantri’s discoveries helped the Indian medicinal system of ayurveda become more refined and efficient. Doctors were skilled in surgical practices and inoculation against contagious diseases was performed. Even today, Dhanvantri’s birth anniversary is celebrated on Dhanteras, two days before Diwali. This intellectual surge was not confined to the courts or among the royalty. People were encouraged to learn the nuances of Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual debate, music and painting. Several educational institutions were set up and the existing ones received continuous support.

ART, ARCHITECTURE & CULTURE

What philosopher and historian Ananda Coomaraswamy said in The Arts & Crafts of India & Ceylone, about the art of the region must be remembered here,

The Hindus do not regard the religious, aesthetic, and scientific standpoints as necessarily conflicting, and in all their finest work, whether musical, literary, or plastic, these points of view, nowadays so sharply distinguished, are inseparably united.

The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya. The basic tenets of Shilpa Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were followed everywhere including in town planning. Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice the size of Delhi’s Iron Pillar), intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of the metalsmiths. Carved ivories, wood and lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile also thrived. Practicing vocal music, dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena (an Indian musical stringed instrument), flute and mridangam (drum) were a norm rather than exception. These were regularly performed in temples as a token of devotion. In classic Indian style, artists and litterateurs were encouraged to meditate on the imagery within and capture its essence in their creations. As Agni Purana suggests, “O thou Lord of all gods, teach me in dreams how to carry out all the work I have in my mind.”

DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE

After the demise of his father Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I (circa 415 – 455 CE) ruled over the vast empire with skill and ability. He was able to maintain peace and even fend off strong challenges from a tribe known as Pushyamitra. He was helped by his able son Skandagupta (455 – 467 CE) who was the last of the sovereign rulers of the Gupta Dynasty. He also succeeded in preventing the invasion of the Huns (Hephthalites). Skandagupta was a great scholar and wise ruler. For the well being of the denizens he carried out several construction works including the rebuilding of a dam on Sudarshan Lake, Gujarat. But these were the last of the glory days of the empire.

After Skandagupta’s death the dynasty became embroiled with domestic conflicts. The rulers lacked the capabilities of the earlier emperors to rule over such a large kingdom. This resulted in a decline in law and order. They were continuously plagued by the attacks of the Huns and other foreign powers. This put a dent in the economic well-being of the empire. On top of this, the kings remained more occupied with self-indulgence than in preparing to meet with the challenges of their enemies. The inept ministers and administrative heads also followed suit. Notably, after the defeat and capture of Mihirakula, one of the most important Hephthalite emperors of the time, Gupta King Baladitya set him free on the advice of his ministers. The Huns came back to haunt the empire later and finally drew the curtains on this illustrious empire in circa 550. The following lines of King Sudraka’s Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) aptly sum up the rise and fall in the fortune of the Gupta Dynasty.

Rajaram Mohun		Laid stress on the study of English & established the Hindu College in Calcutta
Roy		alongwith David Hare.
Maharishi		The grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore. He inspired a number of thinkers like
Devendranath		Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar & Akshay Kumar Datta who became Brahmo Samaj
Tagore		members.  He  din’t  perform  his  fathers  antyeshti  samskara  as  it  involved  idol
		worship.
Keshav Chandra		He was greatly inspired with the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus Christ & hence he

 

 

 

Sen	came in confrontation with Devendranath Tagore. Consequently the Brahmo Samaj
	was split into the Brahmo Samaj of India under him & Adi Brahmo Samaj under
	Devendranath. He opposed child marriage but married her own minor daughter to
	Maharaja of Cooch-Behar. Hence there was a further split into Neo Brahmo Samaj
	under him & Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
Ishwar Chandra	Became principal of Sanskrit college in Calcutta. Opened the Sanskrit college for
Vidyasagar	non  Brahmin  students.  He  founded  ‘Bethune  School  at  Calcutta’  to  encourage
	female education.
Bankim Chandra	First graduate of Calcutta University which was estd in 1857 based on the lines of
	Macaulay Minute. He became a deputy collector. Wrote the famous Bande Matram
	(Anand Math) & published Banga Darshan magazine.
Ramakrishna	Became a priest in the temple of Goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar.
Paramhamsa	(1836-86)
Swami	In 1893 he attened the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. In 1897 he established
Vivekanand	the  Ramakrishna  Mission.  His  disciple,  Sister  Nivedita  even  helped  many
(1863-1902)	revolutionaries from Bengal directly.
Swami Dayananda	Known in early life as Mul Shankar & born in Gujarat. Received his education at
1824-83	the feet of Swami Virajananda at Mathura. Founded Arya Samaj in 1875 based on
	a set of 28 principles (later 10). He estd the HQ of Arya Samaj at Lahore. Passed
	away on Diwali at Jodhpur following the mixing of glass powder in his drink.
	Through his Satyartha Prakasha he emphasized Vedas. He laid emphasis on the
	worship  of  a  formless  god  &  abandonment  of  idolatory.  He  emphasized  on
	Ashrama system of education. He stressed on swadeshi, swadharma, swabhasha &
	swarajya. He considered Vedas as infallible.
Jyotibha Phule	In  1873  he  founded  Satya  Shodhak  Samaj.  Gave  testimony  before  Hunter
	Commission against Christian missionaries. Later given the title ‘Mahatma’.
Sayyid Ahmad	In 1875 founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh which later
Khan	became Aligarh University. Opposed polygamy, purdah, abolition of the practice of
	easy divorce, reform in madrasa.
	Freedom Fighters
Lokmanya Tilak	Introduced the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi & Shivaji festivals. Paticipated in
1856-1920	Home Rule Movement in 1916. Called by Britishers as ‘Biggest Traitor’ & ‘Father
	of Indian dissatisfaction’
Lala Lajpat Rai	Sher-e-Punjab. Was sent to Jail at Mandey on the charges of seditious activities.
Sri Aurobindo	His development of National education & editing of Bande Mataram (started by
Ghosh	Bipin Chandra Pal) gave momentum to Bengal partition movement. Left Baroda to
	work in the National College in Calcutta.
Chapekar Brothers	Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. Killed two British officials Rand &
	Aryst. Celcbrated Shivaji & Ganesh Utsavs.
Savarkar Brothers	Ganesh  Savarkar,  Vinayak  Damodar  Savarkar  &  Narayana  Savarkar.  V.D.
	Savarkar organized the New India Association in London. Organizing lectures at
	the  India  House  founded  by  Shyamji  Krishna  Verma.  He  was  linked  to  the
	assassination  of  Jackson  at  Aurangabad.  Sentenced  to  imprisonment  in  the
	Andamans from 1911-24.
Shyamji Krishna	India  House  had  become  centre  of  V.D  Savarkar,  Sardar  Singh  Rana,  Madam
Verma	Bhikaji kama & Madan Lal Dhingra.
Madam Kama	Represented India in the Interinational Conference at Stutteguard in Germany.

 

 

 

Madan Lal	He short dead the assistant of the Secretary of State Curzon Wyllie. Gopal Krishna
Dhingra	Gokhale clled it as a heinous act meant to spoil the name of India.
Chandra Shekhar	Involved in the assassination of Saunders (officer who ordered the Lathi Charge in
Azad	which Lala Lajpat was killed), alongwith Bhagat Singh & Rajguru. He had chalked
	out a plan to blow up the train in which the Viceroy Lord Irwin was traveling. He
	was killed in a police encounter  at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Harkishen Talwar	Shot  the  Governor  of  Punjab  but  the  latter  escaped  with  injuries  only  Later
	Harkishen was hanged.
Bhagat Singh	In association with Chhabil Das & Yashpal he had founded the Punjab Naujavan
	Bharat Sabha.
Rani Gaidinliu	Lead the Nagas in the revolt. Yadunaga was the other leader.
Subhas Chandra	Passed  the Civils  in  1920 but  preferred to  serve  the  nationalist  cause. He  was
Bose	elected  the  Mayor  of  Calcutta  in  1923  but  soon  arrested  &  sent  to  Mandalay.
	Elected President at the Haripura session of Congress in 1938. He left for Kabul
	along with his friend Bhagat Ram. From there he went to Germany & met Hitler.
	He was first addressed as Netaji in Germany.
Udham Singh	Whilst living in England in 1940, Singh shot dead Sir Michael O’Dwyer, former
	Governor General of the Punjab.

 

 

The Pallava rule formed a golden epoch in the cultural history of south India. The period under the Pallavas was marked by considerable literary activities and cultural revival. The Pallavas warmly patronized Sanskrit language and most of the literary records of the time were composed in that language. Due to the cultural renaissance and a great revival of the Sanskrit language a galaxy of scholars flourished during the Pallava era, which accentuated the literary and cultural development in Southern India. Tradition referred that Simhavishnu, the Pallava king invited the great poet Bharvi to adorn his court. Dandin, the master of Sanskrit prose probably lived in the court of Narasimhavarmana II. Under the royal patronage, Kanchi became the seat of Sanskrit language and literature. The core of learning and education, Kanchi became the point of attraction for the literary scholars. Dinanaga, Kalidasa, Bharvi, Varahamihir etc were the distinguished person with enormous talent in the Pallava country. Not only the Sanskrit literature, the Tamil literature also received a huge impetus during the Pallava period. “Maatavailasa Prahasana”, written by Mahendravarmana became very popular. The famous Tamil classic “Tamil Kural was composed during the period under the royal patronage. Madurai became a great center of the Tamil literature and culture. The Tamil grammar “Talakappiam” and Tamil versical compilation “Ettalogai” etc were composed during the period. These were of immense literary importance.

From the 6th century AD, due to the Sanskrit revival, long poetical composition replaced the earlier style of the short poetry. Poetry was written according to the taste of the sophisticated and aristocratic people of the society. The “Silappadigaram” is one of such work suited to the taste of the sophisticated, educated people of the Pallava era. One of the most important literary works of the time was “Ramayanam” by Kaban. This is known as the Tamil form and version of Ramayana, where the character of Ravana was painted with all the noble virtues in comparison to Rama. It is consistent with the Tamil tradition and Tamil ego against the Northern Ramayana by Valmiki. The Buddhist literary work “Manimekhala” and the Jaina poetical work “Shibaga sindamani” etc. also flourished during the period.

The devotional songs composed by Vaishnava Alavaras and the Saiva Nayanaras also shared a significant position in the cultural renaissance of the Pallava period. Appar, Sambandhar, Manikkabsagar, Sundar were some of the devotional Narayana poets who composed Tamil Stotras or hymns. Siva was the object of worship and love. Since the Pallava kings were great musicians themselves they were the great patrons of music. Several celebrated musical treatise were also composed under their patronage. During the time painting also received a great patronage from the Pallava kings. Specimen of the Pallava painting has been found in the Pudukottai State.

Civilization of the Pallava period was greatly influenced by the religious reform movement that swept over India during the eighth century. The wave of the reform movement was originated in the Pallava kingdom first. The Pallavas completed the Aryanisation of Southern India. The Jains who had entered south India earlier had set up educational centers at Madurai and Kanchi. They also made a massive use of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Tamil as the medium of their preaching. But in the competition with the growing popularity of the Brahmanical Hinduism, Jainism lost its prominence in the long run.

Mahendravarmana lost interest in Jainism and became a staunch follower and patron of Saivism. Consequently Jainism began to fade out and continued in diminishing glory in centers like Pudukottai and in the hilly and forest regions.

Buddhism, which had earlier penetrated in the south, fought against invading Brahmanism in the monasteries and public debates. The Buddhist scholars debated finer points of theology with Brahmanical scholars and mostly lost the ground.

The civilization of the Pallava period was marked by the tremendous ascendancy of the Hinduism, which has been branded by the modern historians as the victory of the northern Aryanism. It is said that the influx of the mlechcha Sakas, Huns and the Kushanas in Northern India had polluted the significance of the Vedic rites and religion. In order to protect the purity of Vedic religion many Brahmins migrated to Southern India and preached the Vedic Religion. Henceforth the civilization of Deccan or southern India was mostly influenced by the Brahmanical Hinduism. Pallavas became the patrons of the orthodox Vedic preachers. The performance of the horse sacrifices by the Pallava rulers testified the ascendancy of the Vedic civilization. The success of Hinduism was mostly caused by the royal patronage to this religion. Sanskrit was the vehicle of the Brahmanical thought. Hence both the Brahmanical religion and Sanskrit literature made a great progress during the Pallava period. Several centers for the Brahmanical study sprang up. These study centers were closely connected with the temple premises and were known as Ghetikas. The study of the Brahmanical scriptures and literatures was the order of the day. The Pallava kings in order to promote the Brahmanical civilization made land grants or agraharas to the maintenance of the educational institutions. In the 8th century AD, another significant Hindu institution called Mathas or monasteries were in vogue. They were a combination of temple, rest houses, educational centers, debating and discoursing centers and the feeding Houses. The university of Kanchi became the spearhead of Aryan-Brahmanical influences of the South. Kanchi was regarded as one of the sacred cities of the Hindus. The Pallava king though mainly were the worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, they were tolerant towards other religious creeds. Although the religions like Buddhism and Jainism lost its former significance during the Pallava era, yet the civilization of the Pallava period was marked by the multiethnicity promoted by the Pallava kings.

 

 

 

Atmiya Sabha (1815)	Raja Rammohun Roy
Brahmo Samaj (1828)	Raja Rammohun Roy.
Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839). Later merged with	Mahrishi Devendranath Tagore.
Brahmo Samaj in 1842
Indian national Social Conference	M.G. Ranade
Harijan Sevak Sangh	Mahatma Gandhi
Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873)	Jyotirao Phule (fight caste oppression)
Shri Narayana Dharma Partiplana Yogama	Shri Narayan Guru (fight caste oppression)
South Indian Liberal Federation (later became	T. Teagaraja & T.M. Nair (Self respect)
justice party & then Dravida Kazhagam)
Prarthana Samaj (1867)	Atma Ram Pandurang
Arya Samaj (1875)	Swami Dayanand
Servants of India Society (1905)	Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Rejected Knighthood)
Hindu Dharma Sangrakshini Sabha (1893 at	Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna.
Nasik)
Abhinav Bharat	V.D. Savarkar
New India Association	V.D. Savarkar
Anushilan Samiti	Aurobindo Ghose, Barindra Kumar Ghose, B.P.
	Mitra, Abinash Bhattacharya & Bhupendra Dutta
Patriotic Association	Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Muhammad Anglo-Oriental Defence Association	Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha (1924)	B.R. Ambedkar
Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha	B.R. Ambedkar